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^ . 0 * «*L’% ^ 















The Automobile 
Storage Battery 


Its Care and Repair 


A PRACTICAL BOOK FOR THE REPAIRMAN. GIVES IN 
NON-TECHNICAL LANGUAGE THE THEORY, CONSTRUC¬ 
TION, OPERATION, MANUFACTURE, MAINTENANCE, AND 
REPAIR OF THE LEAD-ACID BATTERY USED ON THE 
AUTOMOBILE. DESCRIBES AT LENGTH ALL SUBJECTS 
WHICH HELP THE REPAIRMAN BUILD UP A SUCCESSFUL 
BATTERY REPAIR BUSINESS. 

BY 

O. A. WITTE 

Chief Engineer, American Bureau of Engineering, Inc. 


Second Edition, Revised 


Published, 1919, by 

THE AMERICAN BUREAU OF ENGINEERING, INC. 

»> 

CHICAGO, ILLINOIS, U. S. A. 





















Copyright, 1918 and 1919, by 
American Bureau of Engineering, Inc. 


Entered at Stationers’ Hall, 
London, England. 



MAK 20 1920 


©CI.A5652B3 

M , . 






AT 


16 WEST 


a. L: l ir^AN 

* 1 i AW 

’ ■ t'NTRAL 

^ ‘«Awt iuAfigg 

^rilC-AGO 


„!•' 


PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. 

Many books have been written on Storage Batteries nsecl in 
stationary work, as in electric power stations. These books 
cover the subject thoroughly. The storage battery, as used on the 
modern gasoline car, however, is subjected to service which is 
radically different from that of the battery in stationary work. 
It is true that the chemical actions are the same in all lead-acid 
storage batteries, but the design, construction, and operation of 
the starting and lighting battery are unique, and require a special 
description. 

This book therefore refers only to the lead-acid type of starting 
and lighting battery used on the modern gasoline automobile. It 
is divided into two sections. The first section covers the theory, 
design, operating conditions, and care of the battery. 

The second section deals with the actual work of repairing and 
rebuilding the storage battery. Mr. Henry E. Peers cooperated 
with the author in preparing the instructions given in this section 
for the actual overhauling of batteries, and also supplied many 
of the photographs from which the illustrations for this section 
were made. 

The second section will be especially valuable to the battery 
repairman. All the instructions given have been in actual use 
for years, and represent the accumulated experiences of one of 
the most up-to-date battery repair shops in the United States. 

Information concerning any of the tools and appliances may be 
obtained from the American Bureau of Engineering. 

0. A. WITTE, 

Chief Engineer, American Bureau of Engineering. 

April, 1918. 



PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 


The first edition of this hook met with a most pleasing reception 
from both repairmen and battery manufacturers. It was written 
to fill the need for a complete treatise on the Automobile Storage 
Battery for the use of battery repairmen. The rapid sale of the 
book, and the letters of appreciation from those who read it, 
proved that such a need had existed. 

The automobile battery business is a growing one, and one in 
which new designs and processes are continually developed, and 
in preparing the second edition, this has been kept in mind. Some 
of the chapters have been entirely rewritten, and new chapters 
have been added to bring the text up-to-date. Old methods have 
been discarded, and new ones described. A chapter on Farm 
lighting Batteries has been added, as the automobile battery man 
should familiarize himself with such batteries, and be able to 
repair them. 

Special thanks are due those who offered their cooperation in 
the revision of the book. Air. George AT. Howard of the Electric 
Storage Battery Co., and Mr. C. E. Merrill of the U. S. Light 
Heat Corporation very kindly read the book and gave many help¬ 
ful suggestions. They also prepared special articles which have 
been incorporated in the book. Air. Henry E. Peers again con- 
salted with the author and gave much valuable assistance. Air. 
Lawrence Pearson of the Philadelphia Battery Co., Mr. F. S. Arm¬ 
strong of the Vesta Accumulator'Co., Messrs. P. L. Rittenhouse 
and W. C. Brooks of the Prest-O-Lite Co., and Messrs. Gutten- 
berger and Steger of the American Eveready Works also ren¬ 
dered much valuable assistance and supplied special articles, all 
of which have been used in the preparation of the second edition. 

0. A. WITTE, 

Chief Engineer, American Bureau of Engineering, Inc. 

Nov., 1910. 



Contents 


Chapter 


SECTION 1. 


Page 


• 1. 

O 

o 

o 

4 

5 

6 
i 
8 
<) 

10 

11 

12 


INTRODUCTORY . 1 

BATTERIES IN GENERAL. 5 

MANUFACTURE OF STORAGE BATTERIES. 11 

CHEMICAL ACTIONS WHICH PRODUCE ELECTRICITY. 31 

HOW CHEMICAL ACTIONS PRODUCE ELECTRICITY. 37 

WHAT TAKES PLACE DURING DISCHARGE. 4G 

WHAT TAKES PLACE DURING CHARGE. 53 

CAPACITY OF STORAGE BATTERIES. 56 

INTERNAL RESISTANCE . 64 

CONDITIONS OF OPERATION ON THE CAR. 67 

HOW TO TAKE CARE OF THE BATTERY ON THE CAR. 74 

BATTERY TROUBLES . 94 


SECTION 2. 


13, THE WORKSHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. 127 

The Workshop. Shop Equipment. Special Workbench. Shelving. 

Concerning Light. Tools and Equipment. The Battery Steamer. 

The Battery Plate Press. The Battery Turntable. The Burning 
Lead Mould. The Battery Carrier. The Plate Burning Rack. 
Charging Bench. Charging Equipment. Motor-Generator Sets. 
Mercury Arc Rectifier. Other Arc Rectifiers. Electrolytic Recti¬ 
fier. Mechanical Rectifiers. Stahl Rectifier. Other Charging 
Equipment. Discharge Apparatus. Charging Methods. Lead 
Burning Apparatus. Putting New Batteries Into Service. High 
Rate Discharge Test. Installing the Battery on the Car. Wet 
and Dry Storage Methods. Mixing Electrolyte. Tagging Bat¬ 
teries. Packing Batteries for Shipment. Cadmium Test. Pre¬ 
cautions to Be Taken by the Workman. 

14. DETERMINATION OF CONDITION OF BATTERY. 221 

What Is the Trouble? Cutout Adjustments. Battery Trouble 

Charts. Summary of Work to Be Done on Battery. When May 
a Battery Be Left on the Car? When Should a Battery Be Re¬ 
moved from the Car? When Is it Unnecessary to Open a Battery? 
When Must a Battery Be Opened? 

















CONTENTS 


15. REBUILDING THE BATTERY. 

How to Open a Battery. What Must Be Done with the Battery? 

When to Put in New Plates. When the Old Plates May Be 
Used Again. What to Do with the Separators. Eliminating 
Short-Circuits. Preliminary Charge. Washing and Pressing 
Plates. Burning on New Plates. Work on the Jars. Testing the 
Jars for Leaks. Putting in New Jars. Repairing the Case. Re¬ 
assembling the Elements. Putting Elements Into Jars. Filling 
Jars with Electrolyte. Putting on the Covers. Sealing Com- 
pounds. Sealing the Battery. Burning in the Connectors and 
Terminals. Cleaning and Painting the Case. Charging the Re¬ 
built Battery. Testing. 

16. SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS. 

Exide Batteries. U. S. L. Batteries. Prest-O-Lite Batteries. Phila¬ 
delphia Batteries. Eveready Batteries. Vesta Batteries. 

17. FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES. 

General Description. Jars. Plates. Separators. Electrolyte. 

Charging Equipment. Relation of the Automobile Storage Bat¬ 
tery Repairman to the Farm Lighting Plant. Selection of Plant. 
Location of Plant. Wiring. Installation of Plant. Care of the 
Plant in Operation: (a) Battery Room, (b) Engine, (c) Gen¬ 
erator. Care of the Battery: (a) Cleanliness. (b) Height of 
Electrolyte, (c) Determining the Condition of the Cells. Charg¬ 
ing. When to Charge. Overcharge. Regular Charge. Partial 
Charge. Discharge. Over-discharge. Allowing Discharged Bat¬ 
tery to Stand Idle Without Charge. Battery Troubles. Diagnos¬ 
ing the Condition of the Battery. Prest-O-Lite Farm Lighting 
Batteries. Exide Farm Lighting Batteries. 

DEFINITIONS AND DESCRIPTIONS OF TERMS AND PARTS. 

















Section I 


Theory and Practice 











The Automobile Storage 

Battery 


CHAPTER 1. 
INTRODUCTORY. 


Gasoline and electricity have made possible the modern auto¬ 
mobile. Each has its work to do in the operation of the car, 
and if either fails to perform its duties, the car cannot move. 
The action of the gasoline, and the mechanisms that control it 
are comparatively simple, and easily understood, because gasoline 
is something definite which we can see and feel, and which can 
be weighed, or measured in gallons. Electricity, on the other 
hand, is invisible, cannot be poured into cans or tanks, has no 
odor, and, therefore, nobody knows just what it is. We can 
only study the effects of electricity, and the wires, coils, and 
similar apparatus in which it is present. It is for this reason 
that an air of mystery surrounds electrical things, especially to 
the man who has not made a special study of the subject. 

Witho'ut electricity, there would be no gasoline engine, be¬ 
cause gasoline itself cannot cause the engine to operate. It is 
only when the electrical spark explodes or “ignites" the mix¬ 
ture of gasoline and air which has been drawn into the engine 
cylinders that the engine develops power. Thus an electrical 
ignition system has always been an essential part of every gaso¬ 
line automobile. 


The next step in the use of electricity on the automobile con¬ 
sisted in the substitution of an electric lighting system for the 
inconvenient oil or gas lamps which were satisfactory as far 
as the light they gave was concerned, but which had the dis¬ 
advantage of requiring the driver to leave his seat, and bring 


1 






2 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


each lamp into life separately, often in a strong wind or rain 
which consumed many matches, time, and frequently spoiled his 
temper for the remainder of the evening. Electric lamps have 
none of these disadvantages. They can be controlled from the 
driver’s seat, can be turned on or off by merely turning or push¬ 
ing a switch-button, are not affected by wind or rain, do not 
smoke up the lenses, and do not send a stream of unpleasant 
odors back to the passengers. 

The apparatus used to supply the electricity for the lamps con¬ 
sisted of a generator, or a “storage” battery, or both. The gen¬ 
erator alone had the disadvantage that the lamps could be used 
only while the engine was running. The battery, on the other 
hand, furnished light at all times, but had to be removed from 
the car frequently, and “charged.’' With both the generator 
and battery, the lights could be turned on whether the engine 
was running or not, and, furthermore, it was no longer necessary 
to remove the battery to “charge,” or put new life into it. With 
a generator and storage battery, moreover, a reliable source of 
electricity for ignition was provided, and so we find dry batteries 
and magnetos being discarded in a great many automobiles and 
“battery ignition” systems substituted. 

The development of electric lighting systems increased the pop¬ 
ularity of the automobile, but the motor car still had a great 
drawback—cranking. Owing to the peculiar features of a gaso¬ 
line engine, it must first be put in motion by some external power 
before it will begin to operate under its own power. This made 
it necessary for the driver to “crank'’ the engine, or start it 
moving, by means of a handle attached to the engine shaft. 
Cranking a large engine is difficult, especially if it is cold, and 
often results in tired muscles, and soiled clothes and tempers. 
It also made it impossible for the average woman to drive a car 

because she did not have the strength necessary to “crank” 

0 

an engine. 

The next step in the perfection of the automobile was naturally 
the development of an automatic device to crank the engine, 
and thus make the driving of a car a pleasure rather than a task. 
We find, therefore, that in 1912, “self-starters” began to be 
used. These were not all electrical, some used tanks of com- 













INTRODUCTORY 


3 


pressed air, others acetylene, and various mechanical devices, 
such as the spring starters. The electrical starters, however, 
proved their superiority immediately, and filled such a long felt 
want that all the various makes of automobiles now have electric 
starters. The present day motor car, therefore, uses gasoline for 
the engine only, but uses electricity for ignition, starting, light¬ 
ing, for the horn, cigar lighters, hand warmers on the steering 
wheel, gasoline vaporizers, and even for shifting speed changing 
gears, and for the brakes. 



Fig. 1. The Battery 


On any car that uses an electric lighting and starting system, 
there are two sources of electricity, the generator and the bat¬ 
tery. These must furnish the power for the starting, or ‘‘crank¬ 
ing’ 7 motor, the ignition, the lights, the horn, and the other 
devices. The demands made upon the generator are compara¬ 
tively light and simple, and no severe work is done by it. The 
battery, on the other hand is called upon to give a much more 
severe service, that of furnishing the power to crank the engine. 
It must also perform all the duties of the generator when the 
engine is not running, since a generator must be in motion in 
order to produce electricity. 





4 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


A generator is made of iron, copper, carbon, and insulation. 
These are all solid substances which can easily be built in any 
size or shape, and which undergo very little change as parts of 
the generator. The battery is made mainly of lead, lead com- 
pounds, water and sulphuric acid. Here we have liquids as well 
as solids, which produce electricity by changes in their com¬ 
position, resulting in complicated chemical as well as electrical 
actions. 

The battery is, because of its construction and performance, a 
much abused, neglected piece of apparatus which is but partly 
understood, even by many electrical experts, for to understand 
it thoroughly requires a study of chemistry as well as of elec¬ 
tricity. Knowledge of the construction and action of a storage 
battery is not enough to make anyone an expert battery man. 
He must also know how to regulate the operating conditions 
so as to obtain the best service from the battery, and he must 
be able to make complete repairs on any battery no matter what 
its condition may be. 

In the following chapters we shall treat in detail the subjects 
of electrical and chemical reactions, construction, operation, 
maintenance, and repair, with the object of making the reader 
familiar with all phases of battery work, and to lift the veil of 
mystery from the “giant who lives in a box.” 








CHAPTER 2. 


BATTERIES IN GENERAL. 

There are three ways of “generating’’ electricity: 7. Magnet¬ 
ically, 2. Chemically, 3. Thermally. The first method is that used 
in a generator, in which wires are rotated in a “field” in which 
magnetic forces act. The second method is that of the battery, 
and the one in which we are now interested. The third method 
consists of heating a joint of two different metals and is of no 
practical importance. 

If two unlike metals or conducting substances are placed in 
a liquid which acts chemically upon one of the substances more 
than upon the other, an electrical pressure, or “electromotive” 
force is caused to exist between the two metals or conducting 
substances. The greater the difference in the chemical activity 
on the substances, the greater will be the electrical pressure, 
and if the Substances are connected together outside of the liquid 
by a wire or other conductor of electricity, an electric current 
will How through the path or “circuit” consisting of the liquid, 
the two substances which are immersed in the liquid, and the 
external wire or conductor. 

As the current flows through the combination of the liquid, 
and the substances immersed in it, which is called a voltaic “cell,” 
one or both of the substances undergo chemical changes which 
continue until one of the substances is entirely changed. These 
chemical changes produce the electrical pressure which ca'uses 
the current to flow, and the flow will continue until one or both 
of the substances are changed entirely. This change due to the 
chemical action may result in the formation of gases, or of solid 
compounds. If gases are formed they escape and are lost. If 
solids are formed, no material is actually lost. 

Assuming that one of the conducting substances, or “elec¬ 
trodes," which are immersed in the liquid has been acted upon 

5 







6 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


by the liquid, or “electrolyte, ” until no further chemical action 
can take place, our voltaic cell will no longer be capable of 
causing a flow of electricity. If none of the substances result¬ 
ing from the original chemical action have been lost as gases, it 
may be possible to reverse the entire set of operations which 
have taken place. That is, suppose we now send a current 
through the cell from an outside source of electricity, in a direc¬ 
tion which is opposite to that in which the current, which was 
produced by the chemical action between the electrodes and 
electrolyte, flowed. If this current now produces chemical ac¬ 
tions between electrodes and electrolyte which are the reverse 
of those which occurred originally, so that finally we have the 
electrodes and electrolyte brought back to their original compo¬ 
sition and condition, we have the cell just as it was before we 
used it for the production of an electrical pressure. The cell 
can now again be used as a source of electricity as long as 
the electrolyte acts upon the electrodes, or until it is “dis¬ 
charged" and incapable of any further production of electrical 
pressure. Sending a current through a discharged cell, so as to 
reverse the chemical actions which brought about the discharged 
conditions, is called “charging" the cell. 

Cells in which an electrical pressure is produced as soon as the 
electrodes are immersed in the electrolyte are called “primary” 
cells. In -these cells it is often impossible, and always unsatis¬ 
factory to reverse the chemical action as explained above. Cells 
whose chemical actions are reversible are called “storage” or 
“secondary” cells. In the “storage” cells used today, a curren 
must first be sent through the cell in order to ca'use the chem¬ 
ical changes which result in putting the electrodes and elec¬ 
trolyte, in such a condition that they will be capable of pro¬ 
ducing an electrical pressure when the chemical changes caused 
by the current are complete. The cell now possesses all the 
characteristics of a primary cell, and may be used as a source 
of electricity until “discharged.” It may then be “charged.” 
again, and so on, the chemical action in one case causing a flow 
of current, and a reversed flov T of current causing reversed chem¬ 
ical actions. 

We see from the above that the “storage” battery does not 


BATTERIES IN GENERAL 


7 


i “ store electricity at all, but changes chemical into electrical 
| energy when “discharging,” and changes electrical into chem¬ 
ical energy when “charging,” the two actions being entirely 
reversible. The idea of “storing” electricity comes from the 
fact that if we send a current of electricity through the cell 
for a certain length of time, we can at a later time draw a current 
from the cell for almost the same length of time. 

Three things are therefore required in a storage cell, the liquid 



A Complete Cell 


Negative Group 
Fig. 2 


Positive Group 




or “electrolyte" and two unlike substances or electrodes, through 
which a current of electricity can pass and which are acted upon 
by the electrolyte with a chemical action that is greater for one 
substance than the other. In the storage cell used on the auto¬ 
mobile to-day for starting and lighting, the electrodes are lead 
and peroxide of lead, and the electrolyte is a mixture of sulphuric 
acid and water. The peroxide of lead electrode is the one upon 
which the electrolyte has the greater chemical effect, and it is 
called the positive or “ + ” electrode, because when the battery 
is sending a current through an external circuit, the current 






















flows from this electrode through the external circuit, and back 
to the lead electrode, which is called the negative, or 
electrode. 

When starting and lighting systems were adopted in 1912, 
storage batteries had been used for many years in electric power 
stations. These were, however, large and heavy, and many dif¬ 
ficult problems of design had to be solved in order to produce 
a battery capable of performing the work of cranking the engine, 
and yet be portable, light, and small enough to occupy only a 



Fig. 3. A complete element, consisting of a positive and negative group of 
plates and separators ready for placing in the hard rubber jars 


very limited space on the automobile. As a result these condi¬ 
tions governing the design, the starting and lighting battery of 
to-day is in reality “the giant that lives in a box.” The Elec¬ 
tric Storage Battery Company estimates that one of its types of 
batteries, which measures only 12% inches long, 7% wide, and 
9% high? and weighs only 63% pounds, can deliver enough 
energy to raise itself to a height of 6 miles straight up in the 
air. It must be able to do its work quickly at all times, and in 
all sorts of weather, with temperatures ranging from below 0° 
to 100° Fahrenheit. 




























BATTERIES [N GENERAL 


9 




The starting and lighting battery lias therefore been designed 
to withstand severe operating conditions. Looking at such a bat¬ 
tery on a car we see a small wooden box in which are placed three 
or more “cells,” see Fig. 1. Each “cell” has a hard, black rubber 
top tin ough which two posts of lead project. Bars of lead connect 
the posts of one cell to those of the next. To one of the posts of 
each end cell is connected a cable which leads into the car, and 
through which the current leaves or enters the battery. At the 
center of each cell is a removable rubber plug covering an opening 
through which communication is established with the inside of the 
cell for the purpose of pouring in water, removing some of the 
electrolyte to determine the condition of the battery, or to allow 
gases formed within the cell to escape. Looking down through 
this opening we can see the things needed to form a storage bat- 
. / electi olj t e, and the electrodes or “plates” as they are 

called. If we should remove the lead bars connecting one cell to 
another, and take off the black cover, we shall find that the posts 
which project out of the cells are attached to the plates which are 


broad and flat, and separated by thin pieces of wood or rubber. If 
we lift the plates out of the jar we find that they are connected 
alternately to the two lead posts, and that the two outside ones 
have a gray color. If we pull the plates out from each other, we 
find that the plates next to the two outside ones, and all other 
plates connected to the same lead post as these have a chocolate- 
brown color. If we remove the jar of the cell, we find that it is 
made of hard rubber. Pouring out the electrolyte we find several 
ridges which hold the plates off the bottom of the jar. The pock¬ 
ets formed by these ridges may contain some soft, muddy sub¬ 
stance. Thus we have exposed all the elements of a cell,—posts, 
plates, “separators,” and electrolyte. The gray colored plates 
are attached to the “negative” battery post, while the chocolate- 
brown colored ones are connected to the “positive” battery post. 
Examination will show that each of the plates consists of a skele¬ 
ton metallic framework which is filled with the brown or gray 
substances. This construction is used to decrease the weight of 
the battery. The gray filler material is pure lead in a condition 
called “spongy lead.” The chocolate-brown filler substance is 
peroxide of lead. 





10 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


We have found nothing but two sets of plates,—one of pure 
lead, the other of peroxide of lead, and the electrolyte of sulphuric 
acid and water. These produce the heavy current necessary to 
crank the engine. How this is done, and what the chemical ac¬ 
tions within the cell are, are described in Chapter 4. 





CHAPTER 3. 


MANUFACTURE OF STORAGE BATTERIES. 

To supply the great number of batteries needed for gasoline 
automobiles, large companies have been formed. Each company 
has its special and secret processes which it will not reveal to the 
public. Only a few companies, however, supply batteries in any 
considerable quantities, the great majority of cars being supplied 
with batteries made by not more than five or six manufacturers. 
This greatly reduces the number of possible different designs in 
general use today. 

The design and dimensions of batteries vary considerably, but 
the general constructions are similar. The special processes of 
the manufacturers are of no special interest to the motoring pub¬ 
lic, and only a general description will be given here. 

A starting and lighting battery consists of the following prin¬ 
cipal parts : 

1. Plates 5. Covers 

2. Separators 6. Cell Connectors 

3. Electrolyte 7. Case 

4. Jars 

Plates. 

Of the two general types of battery plates, Faure and Plante, 
the Faure, or pasted type, is universally used on automobiles. 
In the manufacture of pasted plates there are several steps which 
we shall describe in the order in which they are carried out. 

Casting the Grid. The grid is the skeleton of the plate. It 
performs the double function of supporting the mechanically 
weak active material and conducting the current. It is made of a 
stiff lead-antimony alloy which is melted and poured into a mould. 
Pure lead is too soft and easily attacked by the electrolyte and 

11 


antimony is added to give stiffness and resistance to the action of 
the electrolyte in the cell. The amount of antimony used varies 
in different makes but probably averages 8 to 10%. 

The casting process requires considerable skill, the proper com¬ 
position of the metal and the temperature of both metal and 
moulds being of great importance in securing perfect grids, which 
are free from blowholes, and which have a uniform structure 
and composition. Some manufacturers cast two grids simul¬ 
taneously in each mould, the two plates being joined to each 


I* ig. 4. Grid, Trimmed, and Ready for Pasting 

o 



other along the bottom edge. This form of casting gives two lugs 

o o o 

by means of which the pasted castings are later hung in the form¬ 
ing tanks. 

Trimming the Grids. When the castings have cooled, they are 
removed from the moulds and passed to a press or trimming 
machine which trims off the casting gate and the rough edges. 
The grids are given a rigid inspection, those having shrunken or 
missing ribs or other defects being rejected. The Prest-O-Lite 
Company makes a second inspection of those grids which have 






































































MANUFACTURE OF STORAGE BATTERIES 


passed the first inspection. In the second inspection the most 
perfect castings are sorted ont to be used for positive plates, 
which are subjected to greater strains in service than the nega¬ 
tives. The grids are now ready for pasting. 

Fig. 4 shows a grid ready for pasting. The heavy lug at one 
upper corner is the conducting lug, for carrying the current to 
the strap, Fig. 5, into which the lugs are burned when the battery 
is assembled. The straps are provided with posts, to which the 
intercell connectors and terminal connectors are attached. The 
vertical ribs of the grids extend through the plate, providing 
mechanical strength and conductivity, while the small horizontal 



Negative Strap Positive Strap 

Fig. 5. Plate Connecting Straps 


ribs are at the surface and in staggered relation on opposite faces. 
Both the outside frames and the vertical ribs are reinforced near 
the lug, where the greatest amount of current must be carried. 

The rectangular arrangement of ribs, as shown in Fig. 4, is 
most generally used, although in the Philadelphia Diamond 
grid the ribs form acute angles, giving diamond shaped openings, 
as shown in Fig. 6. 

Pastes. There are many formulas for the pastes, which are 
later converted into active material, and each is considered a 
trade secret by the manufacturer using it. The basis of all, how¬ 
ever, is oxide of lead, either Red Lead (Pb 3 0 4 ), Litharge (1 bO), 
or a mixture of the two, made into a paste with a liquid, such as 
dilute sulphuric acid. The object of mixing tne oxides with sul¬ 
phuric acid is to form a paste of the proper consistency for appli- 





14 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


cation to the grids, and at the same time introduce the proper 
amount of binding, or setting agent which will give porosity, 
and result in a network of lead sulphate crystals which will bind 
together the active material, especially in the positive plate, 
throughout the life of the battery. Red lead usually predom- 



> 

Fig. 6. Philadelphia Diamond Grid 


mates in the positive paste, and litharge in the negative, as this 
combination requires the least energy in forming the oxides to 
active material. 

The oxides of lead used in preparing the pastes which are ap¬ 
plied to the grids are powders, and in their dry condition could 
not be applied to the grids, as they would fall out. Mixing them 
with a liquid to make a paste gives them greater coherence and 






















MANUFACTURE OF STORAGE BATTERIES 


15 


enables them to be applied to the grids. The sulphuric acid puts 
the oxides in the desired pasty condition, but has the disadvan¬ 
tage of causing a chemical action to take place which changes a 
considerable portion of the oxides to lead sulphate, the presence 
of which makes the paste stiff and impossible to apply to the 
grids. It is therefore necessary to work fast after the oxides are 
mixed with sulphuric acid to form the paste. 

In case of the U. S. L. plates, the oxides are mixed in such a 
manner that the hardening due to the formation of lead sulphate 
does not occur until desired. This hardening or setting action is 
caused to take place after the pastes have been applied to the 
grids by the pasting machine. 

Applying the Paste. After the oxides are mixed to a paste 
they are applied to the grids. This is done either by hand, or by 
machine. In the hand pasting process, the pastes are applied 
from each face of the grid by means of a wooden paddle or trowel, 
and are smoothed off flush with the surface of the ribs of the grid. 
This work is done quickly in order that the pastes may not stiffen 
before they are applied. 

U. S. L. plates are pasted in a machine which applies the paste 
simultaneously to both sides of the grid, subjecting the pastes 
at the same time to a pressure which forces it thoroughly into 
the grid, and packs it in a dense mass. 

Hardening the Paste. The freshly pasted plates are now al¬ 
lowed to dry in the air, are put into drying ovens and dried by 
a hot air blast, or are immersed in dilute sulphuric acid for sev¬ 
eral days. In any case, the pastes set to a hard mass, this being 
due to the formation of lead sulphate, which hardens, and cements 
the particles of the paste. This sulphate becomes crystallized 
into a firm binding mass without which the pastes would soon 
fall from the grids. Both positive and negative plates are allowed 
to sulphate in this way. 

Forming. The next step is to change the paste of oxides into 
the active materials which make a cell operative. This is called 
‘ ‘ forming ’ 7 and is really nothing but a prolonged charge, requir¬ 
ing several days. The plates are mounted in long tanks, positive 
and negative plates alternating as in a cell, but with more space 
between them. The positives are all connected together in one 


h; 


THE AUTOMOBILE 


STORAGE BATTERY 


group and the negatives in another, and current passed through 
just as in charging a battery. 

The passing of the current slowly changes the mixtures of lead 
oxide and lead sulphate, forming brown peroxide of lead (Pb0 2 ), 
on the positive plate and gray spongy metallic lead on the nega¬ 
tive. The formation by the current of lead peroxide and spongy 
lead on the positive and negative plates respectively would take 
place if the composition of the two pastes were identical. The 



Fig- 7. Formed Plate, Ready to Be Burned to Plate Connecting Strap 

difference in the composition of the paste for positive and nega¬ 
tive plates is for the purpose of securing the properties of poros¬ 
ity and physical condition best suited to each. 

Lead Peroxide as we find it in a battery in service is a dark 
brown substance. It does not hold together well, and lead sul¬ 
phate crystals are essential to act as a binder or cement. If all 
the lead sulphate is removed by continued charging, the peroxide 
will drop from the grids rapidly. This does not mean that there 
should be a large proportion of lead sulphate in the positive ac- 










tive material, as it then becomes injurious, causing overheating, 
premature gassing, buckling, and shedding. The negatives do not 
need the sulphate as a cement as much as the positives do, because 
the spongy lead is lead in an exceedingly finely divided condition, 
and the minute particles stick together quite well, forming a co¬ 
herent, elastic mass. 

When the forming process is complete, the plates are washed 
and dried, and are then ready for use in the battery. If the grids 
of two plates have been cast together, as is done by some manu¬ 
facturers, these are now cut apart, and the lugs cut to the proper 
height. The next step is to roll, or press the negatives after they 
are removed from the forming bath so as to bring the negative 
paste, which has become roughened by gassing that occurred dur¬ 
ing the forming process, flush with the surface of the ribs of the 
grid. A sufficient amount of sulphate is left in the plates to bind 
together the active material. Without this sulphate the positive 
paste would simply be a powder and when dry would fall out of 
the grids like dry dust. Fig. 7 shows a formed plate ready to be 
burned to the strap. 


Separators. 

In batteries used both for starting and for lighting, separators 
made of specially treated wood are largely used. See Fig. 8. 
Lately, however, the Willard Company has adopted an insulator 
made of a rubber fabric pierced by thousands of cotton threads, 
each thread being as long as the separator is thick. The elec¬ 
trolyte is carried through these threads from one side of the 
separator to the other by capillary action, the great number of 
these threads insuring the rapid diffusion of electrolyte which 
is necessary in batteries which are subjected to the heavy dis¬ 
charge current required in starting. 

Tn batteries used for lighting or ignition, sheets of rubber in 
which numerous holes have been drilled are also used, these 
boles permitting diffusion to take place rapidly enough to per¬ 
form the required service satisfactorily, since the currents in¬ 
volved are much smaller than in starting motor service. 

For the wooden separators, porous wood, such as basswood, 





18 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


cypress, or cedar are used. Redwood has been used to some ex¬ 
tent. Cherry wood separators are used in Eveready batteries. 
The wood is cut into strips of the correct thickness. These strips 
are passed through a grooving machine which cuts the grooves in 
one side, leaving the other side smooth. The strips are next 
sawed to the correct size, and are then put in a warm alkaline 
solution for about 24 hours to neutralize any organic acid, such 
as acetic acid, which the wood naturally contains. Such acids 
would cause unsatisfactory battery action and damage to the 
battery. The solution used may consist of a 3 per cent solution 
of caustic potash (KOH). The alkaline treatment also removes 



Fig. 8. A Pile of Prepared Wooden Separators Ready to be Put Between 
the Positive and Negative Plates to Form the Complete Element 


resinous materials which fill the pores of the wood. These pores 
must be entirely open in order that the electrolyte may diffuse 
rapidly through the separator. The wood also expands in the 
alkaline solution, and hence the separators should afterwards be 
kept in a wet condition, since they will shrink and warp if they 
are allowed to dry. The separators are finally washed in run¬ 
ning water to remove the alkali, and given a final trimming. They 
are now ready for assembling. 

Some batteries use a double separator, one of which is the 
wooden separator, while the other consists of a thin sheet of 
hard rubber containing many fine perforations. This rubber 
sheet is placed between the positive plate and the wooden 


MANUFACTURE OF STORAGE BATTERIES 19 

separator. A leeent development in the use of an auxiliary rub¬ 
ber separator is the Philco slotted retainer which is placed be¬ 
tween the separators and the positives in Philadelphia Diamond 
Grid Batteries. This retainer consists of a thin sheet of slotted 
hard rubber as shown in Fig. 9. The purpose of the retainer is to 
hold the positive active material in place and prevent the shed¬ 
ding which usually occurs. The slots in the retainer are so nu¬ 
merous that they allow the free passage of electrolyte, but each 



Fig. 9. Philco Slotted Retainer 


slot is made very narrow so as to hold the active material in 
the plates. 


Electrolyte. 

Little need be said here about the electrolyte, since a full 
description is given elsewhere. Acid is received by the battery 
manufacturer in concentrated form. Its specific gravity is then 
1.835. The acid commonly used is made by the 11 contact” proc¬ 
ess, in which sulphur dioxide is oxidized to sulphur trioxide, and 
then, with the addition of water, changed to sulphuric acid. The 















































































































20 


THE AUTOMOBILE 


STORAGE BATTERY 


concentrated acid is diluted with distilled water to the proper 
specific gravity. 

Jars. 


The jars which contain the plates, separators, and electrolyte 
are made of a tough, hard rubber compound. They are made 
either by the moulding process, or by wrapping sheets of vul¬ 
canized compound around metal mandrels. In either case the 
jar is subsequently vulcanized by careful heating at the correct 
temperature. 

The battery manufacturers do not, as a rule, make their own 

jars, but have them made by the rubber companies who give the 

jars a high voltage test to detect any flaws, holes, or cracks which 

would subsequently cause a leak. The jars as received at the 

battery maker’s factory are ready for use. 

& «/ •. 

Across the bottom of the jar are several stiff ribs which extend 
up into the jar so as to provide a substantial support for the 
plates, and at the same time form several pockets below the plates 
in which the sediment resulting from shedding of active material 
from the plates accumulates. 


Covers. 


No part of a battery is of greater importance than the hard 
rubber cell covers, from the viewpoint of the repairman as wT 
as the manufacturer. The repairman is concerned chiefly with i.*. 
methods of sealing the battery, and no part of bis work requires 
greater skill than the work on the covers, which is described on 
page 290. The manufacturers have developed special construc¬ 
tions, their aims being to design the cover so as to facilitate the 
escape of gas which accumulates in the upper part of a cell during 
charge, to provide space for expansion of the electrolyte as it 
becomes heated, to simplify inspection and filling with pure water 
to make leak proof joints between the cover and the jar and 
between the cover and the lead posts which project through 1 
and to simplify the work of making repairs. 

Single and Double Covers. Most modern types of bat 



have a single piece cover, the edges of which are made so as to 
form a slot or channel with the inside of the jar, into which is 
poured sealing compound to form a leak proof joint. This con¬ 
struction is used in Exide, Fig. 15; Vesta, Fig. 178; Philadelphia 
Diamond Urid, Fig. 173; U. S. L., Figs. 11 and 162; and Prest-O- 


HEIGHT OF 
SOLUTION 


50FT RUBBER 
GASKET 


EXPANSION 
CHAMBER _ .. 

fil u 



JAR 


EPIMENT -SPACE 


Fig. 


10. Cross-Section of Gould Double Cover Battery 


Lite, Fig*. 165, batteries. Exide batteries are also made with a 
double flange cover, in which the top of the jar fits between the 
wo flanges, as shown in Fig. 158. In single covers, a compara- 
ively small amount of sealing compound is used, and repair 
work is greatly simplified. 

T n some single cover batteries, Fig. 176, compound is poured 
r the entire cover instead of around the edges. This method 
‘**es a considerable amount of sealing compound. 








































































































































22 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


The use of double covers is not as common as it was some years 
ago. This construction makes use of two flat pieces of hard 
rubber. In such batteries a considerable amount of sealing com¬ 
pound is used. This compound is poured on top of the lower 
cover to seal the battery, the top cover serving to cover up the 
compound and brace the posts. Fig. 10 illustrates this construc¬ 
tion. 

Sealing Around the Posts. Much variety is shown in the 
methods used to secure a leak proof joint between the posts and 
the crver. Several methods are used. One of these uses the seal¬ 
ing compound to make a tight joint. Another has lead bushings 


Sectional Views of Cover 



with Bushings 



with Bushings and Post Straps 


Fig. 11. U. S. L. Cover 

which are screwed up into the cover or moulded in the cover, the 
bushings being burned together with the post and cell connector. 
Another method has a threaded post, and uses a lead alloy nut 
with a rubber washer to make a tight joint. Still another method 
forces a lead collar down over the post, and presses the cover 
down on a soft rubber gasket. 

Using Sealing Compound. Some of the batteries which use 
sealing compound to make a tight joint between the cover and 
the post have a hard rubber bushing shrunk over the post. This 
construction is used in Gould batteries, as shown in Fig. 10, and 
in the old Willard double cover batteries. The rubber bushing is 
grooved horizontally to increase the length of the sealing surface. 

Other batteries that use sealing compound around the posts 
have grooves or “petticoats” cut directly in the post and have a 
well around the post into which the sealing compound is poured. 









































MANUFACTURE OF STORAGE BATTERIES 


23 


This is the construction used in the Philadelphia Diamond Grid 
battery, as shown in Fig. 173. 

Using Lead Bushings. U. S. L. batteries have a flanged lead 
bushing which is moulded directly into the cover, as shown in 
Fig. 11. In assembling the battery, the cover is placed over the 
post, and the cell connector is burned to both post and bushing. 
In older type U. S. L. batteries a bushing was screwed up through 
the cover, and then burned to the post and cell connector. 

Some Prest-O-Lite batteries use a lead bushing which is screwed 
up through the cover similarly to the U. S. L. batteries. Fig. 12 

illustrates this construction. 

* 

Post Flange and 



The modern Vesta batteries use a soft rubber gasket under the 
cover, and force a lead collar over the post which pushes the 
cover down on the gasket. The lead collar and post “freeze’’ 
together and make an acid proof joint. See page 342. 

The Prest-O-Lite Peened Post Seal. All Prest-O-Lite batteries 
designated as types WHN, RIIN, BHN and JFN, have a single 
moulded cover which is locked directly on to the posts. This is 
done by forcing a solid ring of lead from a portion of the post 
down into a deep chamfer in the top of the cover. This con¬ 
struction is illustrated in Fig. 165. 

Batteries Using Sealing Nuts. The Exide batteries have 
threaded posts. A rubber gasket is placed under the cover on a 
shoulder on the post. The nut is then turned down on the post 
to force the cover on the gasket. This construction is illustrated 
r in Fig. 158. 




























24 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


Some of the later Willard batteries have a chamfer or groove 
in the under side of the cover. The posts have a ring of lead in 
the base which fits up into the groove in the cover to make a 
tight joint. This is illustrated in Fig. 13. 

Filling Tube Construction. Quite a number of designs have been 
developed in the construction of the filling tube. In double 

a 



Fia. 13. Cross Section of Willard Battery 


covers, the tube is sometimes a separate part which is screwed 
into the lower cover. In other batteries using double covers, the 
tube is an integral part of the cover, as shown in Fig. 10. In 
all single covers, the tube is moulded integral with the cover. 

Several devices have been developed to make it impossible to 
overfill batteries. This has been done by the U. S. L. and Exide 
companies, their constructions being described below. 

In U. S. L. batteries, a small vent tube is drilled, as shown in 


































MANUFACTURE OF STORAGE BATTERIES 


LJ'J 


I 1 ' 















Fig. 14. When filling to replace evaporation, this vent tube pre¬ 
vents overfilling. 

A finger is placed over 
the vent tube shown in Fig. 

14. The water is then poured 
in through the filling tube 
When the water reaches the 
bottom of the tube, the air 
imprisoned in the expansion 
chamber can no longer es¬ 
cape. Consequently the wa¬ 
ter can rise no higher in 
this chamber, but simply 
fills up the tube. Water is 
added till it reaches the top 
of the tube. The finger is 
then removed from the vent 
tube. This allows the air to 
escape from the expansion 
chamber. The water will 
therefore fall in the filling 
tube, and rise slightly in the 
expansion chamber. The 
construction makes it im¬ 
possible to overfill the bat¬ 
tery, provided that tlie fin¬ 
ger is held on the vent hole 
as directed. 

Figure 15 shows the Non- 
Flooding Vent and Filling 
Plug used in the "Exide 
Battery. This is described 
as follows: 

From the illustrations of 
the vent and filling plug, it 
will be seen that they pro¬ 
vide both a vented stopper (vents F, G, H), and an automatic 
device for the preventing of overfilling and flooding. The amount 


Fig. 14. 


Filling U. S. L. Battery 


































































































































26 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


of water that can be put into the cell is limited to the exact 
amount needed to replace that lost by evaporation. This is ac¬ 
complished by means of the hard rubber valve (A) within the 
battery cover and with which the top of the vent plug (E) en¬ 
gages, as shown in the illustrations. The action of removing the 
plug (E) turns this valve (A), closing the air passage (BB), and 



Sectional View of Cover, Plug in Place. Air Lock (A) in Po¬ 
sition to Allow Free Escape of Gas Through Passages (BB) 




Top View of Cover and Filling Plug, Plug Removed 




& C 

Sectional View of Cover, Plug Removed. Air Passages (BB) 
Closed and Air Lock (A) in Position to Prevent Overfilling 


Fig. 15. Exide Cover 


forming an air tight chamber (C) in the top of the cell. When 
water is poured in, it cannot rise in this air space (C) so as to 
completely fill the cell. As soon as the proper level is reached, the 
water rises in the filling tube (D) and gives a positive indication 
that sufficient water has been added. Should, however, the filling 
be continued, the excess will be pure water only, not acid. On 
replacing the plug (E), valve (A) is automatically turned, open¬ 
ing the air passages (BB), leaving the air chamber (C) available 

























MANUFACTURE OF STORAGE BATTERIES 


27 


for the expansion of the solution which occurs when the battery 
is working. 

Generally the filling tube is so made that its lower end indicates 
the correct level of electrolyte above the plates. In adding 
water, the level of the electrolyte is brought up to the bottom of 
the filling tube. By looking down into the tube, it can be seen 
when the electrolyte reaches the bottom of the tube. 

Vent Plugs, or Caps. Vent plugs, or caps, close up the filling 



Fig. 16. Battery Case 


tubes in the covers. They are made of hard rubber, and either 
screw into or over the tubes, or are tightened by a half turn as is 
done in Exide batteries. In the caps are small holes which are so 
arranged that gases generated within the battery may escape, 
but acid spray cannot pass through these holes. It is of the ut¬ 
most importance that the holes in the vent caps be kept open to 
allow the gases to escape. 


Case. 

The wooden case in which the cells are placed is usually made 
of kiln dried white oak or hard maple. The wood is inspected 





carefully, and all pieces are rejected that are weather-checked, or 
contain worm-holes or knots. The wood is sawed into various 
thicknesses, and then cut to the proper lengths and widths. The 
wood is passed through other machines that cut in the dovetails, 
put the tongue on the bottom for the joints, stamp on the part 
number, drill the holes for the screws or bolts holding the han¬ 
dles, cut the grooves for the sealing compound, etc. The several 
pieces are then assembled and glued together. The finishing 
touches are then put on, these consisting of cutting the cases to 
the proper heights, sandpapering the boxes, etc. The cases are 
then inspected and are ready to be painted. 

Asphaltum paint is generaly used, the bottoms and tops being 
given three coats, and the sides, two. The handles are then put 
on by machinery, and the case, Fig. 16, is complete, and ready for 
assembling. 


Assembling and Sealing. 


The first step in assembling a battery is to burn the positive 
and negative plates to their respective straps, Fig. 5, forming the 
positive and negative “ groups, ” Fig. 2. This is done by arrang¬ 
ing a set of plates and a strap in a suitable rack which holds them 
securely in proper position, and then melting together the top of 
the plate lugs and the portion of the strap into which they fit. 
with a hot flame. 

A positive and a negative group are now slipped together and 
the separators inserted. The grooved side of the wood separator 
is placed toward the positive plate and when perforated rubber 
sheets are used these go between the positive and the wood 
separator. The positive and negative “groups" assembled with 
the separators constitute the “element,” Fig. 3. 

Before the elements are placed in the jars they are carefully 
inspected to insure that no separator has been left out. For this 
purpose tlie “Exide" elements are subjected to an electrical test 
which rings a bell if a separator is missing, this having been 
found more infallible than trusting to a man’s eyes. 

In Exide, Vesta, and Prest-O-Lite batteries, the cover is placed 
on the element and made fast before the elements are placed in 


29 


MANUFACTURE OF STORAGE BATTERIES 

the jars. In U. S. L. and Philadelphia batteries, the covers are 
put on after the elements are placed in the jars. 

After the element is in the jar and the cover in position, seal¬ 
ing compound is applied hot so as to make a leak proof joint 
between jar and cover. 

The completed cells are now assembled in the case and the 
intercell connectors, Fig. 17, burned to the strap posts. After 
tilling with electrolyte the battery is ready to receive its “initial 
charge," which may require from several days to a week. A low 


a*, 



Fig. 


3 7. Between Cell Link 


charging rate is used, since the plates are in a sulphated condition 
when assembled. The specific gravity is brought up to about 
1.280 during this charge. Some makers now give the battery a 
short high rate discharge test (see page 188), to disclose any de¬ 
fects, and just before sending them out give a final charge. If 
the batteries are to be shipped “wet," they are ready for shipping 
after the final charge and inspection. Batteries which are shipped 
“dry” need to have more work done upon them. Some of the 
methods of dry shipping are described below. 

Terminal Connections. 

When the battery is on the car it is necessary to have some 
form of detachable connection to the car circuit and this is 



Fig. 18. Term. Link in Perspective 


accomplished by means of “terminal connectors," Fig. 18, of 
which there are many types. 

Many types of terminals are in two parts, one being per- 
manently attached to the car circuit and the other mounted per- 


30 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


manently on the battery by lead burning to the terminal cell 
post, the two parts being detachably joined by means of a bolted 
connection. 

In another type of terminal, the cable is soldered directly to the 
terminal which is lead burned to the cell post. In this construc¬ 
tion there is very much less chance of corrosion taking place, 
and it is therefore a good design. 

*' 

Preparing Batteries for Dry Shipment. 

v 4 

Philadelphia Diamond Grid Batteries. These batteries are pre¬ 
pared for shipment by the “dry seaU’ method. The plates are 
fully formed, hardened by immersion in sulphuric acid, and dried. 
The plates are then moistened with water, burned into groups, 
find assembled into cells with moistened separators. The vent 
cap hole is then closed with a red sealing wax, thus sealing the 
battery so as to prevent the evaporation of the moisture in the 
separators. 

Willard “Bone Dry” Batteries. Fully formed and acid 
hardened (sulphated) plates are dried and assembled into cells 
with dry threaded rubber separators. No moisture is necessary 
in these batteries, because the rubber separators are not injured 
by being in a dry state, as the wooden separators are. 

U. S. L. Batteries. The batteries which are to be shipped dry 
are assembled completely and given the long “initial charge” de¬ 
scribed above. At the end of this charge the batteries are in¬ 
verted, and the electrolyte poured out. They are then filled with 
pure water and allowed to stand several minutes, and the water is 
then poured out, and fresh water put in. In this way the batteries 
are given five washings in pure water. After the final washing, 
the batteries are allowed to drain for five minutes or more, after 
which the vent caps, without any vent holes in them, are screwed 
down firmly to exclude air. The batteries are then ready for 
shipment. 

These methods are typical of the “dry” method of shipping. 
Methods used in the repairshop are somewhat similar, and are 
described on page 194. Instructions for putting into service the 
batteries that have been shipped “dry” are given on page 182, 








CHAPTER 4. 


CHEMICAL ACTIONS WHICH PRODUCE ELECTRICITY. 

Before explaining what happens within one storage cell, let 
ns look into the early history of the storage battery, and see what 
a modest beginning the modern heavy duty battery had. Between 
1850 and 1860 a man named Plante began his work on the storage 
battery. Ilis original cell consisted of two plates of metallic lead 
immersed in dilute sulphuric acid. The acid formed a thin layer 
of lead sulphate on each plate which soon stopped further action 
on the lead. If a current was passed through the cell, the lead 
sulphate on the “anode” or lead plate at which the current 
entered the cell was changed into peroxide of lead, while the sul¬ 
phate on the other lead plate or “cathode" was changed into pure 
lead in a spongy form. This cell was allowed to stand for 
several days and was then “discharged,” lead sulphate being 
again formed on each plate. Each time this cell was charged, 
more “spongy” lead and peroxide of lead were formed. These 
are called the “active” materials, because it is by the chemical 
action between them and the sulphuric acid that the electricity is 
produced. Evidently, the more active materials the plates con¬ 
tained, the longer the chemical action between the acid and active 
materials could take place, and hence the greater the “capacity," 
or amount of electricity furnished by the cell. The process of 
charging and discharging the battery so as to increase the amount 
of active material, is called “forming” the plates. 

Plante’s methods of forming plates was very slow, tedious, and 
expensive. If the spongy lead, and peroxide of lead could 
be made quickly from materials which could be spread over the 
plates, much time and expense could be saved. It was Faure who 
first suggested such a plan, and gave us the “pasted plate of 
to-day, which consists of a skeleton framework of lead, with the 
sponge lead and peroxide of lead filling the spaces between the 


32 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


“ribs” of the framework. Such plates are known as “pasted’ 
plates, and are much lighter and satisfactory than the heavy solid 
lead plates of Plante’s. Chapter 3 describes more fully the 
processes of manufacturing and pasting the plates. 

We know now what constitutes a storage battery, and what the 
parts are that “generate” the electricity. How is the electricity 
produced? If we take a battery which has been entirely 
discharged, so that it is no longer able to cause a flow of current, 
and examine and test the electrolyte and the materials on the 
plates, we shall find that the electrolyte is pure water, and both 
sets of plates composed of white lead sulphate. On the other 
hand, if we make a similar test and examination of the plates and 
electrolyte of a battery through which a current has been sent 
from some outside source, such as a generator, until the current 
can no longer cause chemical reactions between the plates and 
electrolyte, we will find that the electrolyte is now composed of 
water and sulphuric acid, the acid comprising about 30%, and 
the water 70% of the electrolyte. The negative set of plates will 
be composed of pure lead in a spongy form, while the positive will 
consist of peroxide of lead. 

It is evident that the chemical changes which have taken place 
in totally discharging the battery consisted in taking all the acid 
out of the electrolyte, changing the material of the positive plates 
from lead peroxide to lead sulphate, and changing the material of 
the negative plates from pure spongy lead to lead sulphate. Both 
plates are now composed of the same material, and they are im¬ 
mersed in pure water, which has no chemical action upon either 
plate. Such a combination cannot produce electricity, as ex¬ 
plained previously. 

The foregoing description gives the final products of the chem¬ 
ical changes that take place in the storage battery. To under¬ 
stand the changes themselves requires a more detailed investiga¬ 
tion. The substances to be considered in the chemical actions 
are sulphuric acid, water, pure lead, lead sulphate, and lead 
peroxide. With the exception of pure lead, each of these sub¬ 
stances is a chemical compound, or composed of several elements 
Thus sulphuric acid is made up of two parts of hydrogen, which 
is a gas; one part of sulphur, a solid, and four parts of oxygen, 



('•I I KM I CAL ACTIONS WHICH PRODUCE ELECTRICITY 


o o 

tit) 


which is also a gas; these combine to form the acid, which is 
liquid, and which is for convenience written as H 2 S0 4 , II., rep¬ 
resenting two parts of hydrogen, S one part of sulphur, and 0 4 
four parts oxygen. Similarly, water a liquid, is made up of 
two parts of hydrogen and one part of oxygen, represented by 
the symbol II 2 0. Lead is not a compound, but an element whose 
chemical symbol is Pb, taken from the Latin name for lead. Lead 
sulphate is a solid, and consists of one part of lead, a solid sub¬ 
stance, one part of sulphur, another solid substance, and four 



parts of oxygen, a gas. It is represented chemically by Pb S0 4 . 
Lead peroxide is also a solid, and is made up of one part of lead, 
and two parts of oxygen. In the chemical changes that take 
place, the compounds just described are to a certain extent split 
up into the s'ubstances of which they are composed. We thus 
have lead (Pb), hydrogen (II), oxygen (0), and sulphur (S), 
four elementary substances, two of which are solids, and two 
gases. The sulphur does not separate itself entirely from the sub¬ 
stances with which it forms the compounds H 2 S0 4 and Pb S0 4 
These compounds are split into II 2 and S0 4 and Pb and S0 4 re- 








































34 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


spectively. That is, the sulphur always remains combined with 
four parts of oxygen. 

Let us now consider a single storage cell made up of electrolyte, 
one positive plate, and one negative plate. When this cell is fully 
charged, or in a condition to produce a current of electricity, the 
positive plate is made up of peroxide of lead (Pb0 2 ), the negative 
plate of pure lead (Pb), and the electrolyte of sulphuric acid 
(H 2 S0 4 ). This is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 19. The chem¬ 
ical changes that take place when the cell is discharging and the 
final result of the changes are as follows : 

(a) . At the positive plate: Lead peroxide (Pb0 2 ) and sul¬ 
phuric acid (ILSOJ and two parts of hydrogen (H 2 ) produce 
two parts of water (2II 2 0) and one part of lead sulphate 
(PbSOJ. This may also be represented in this way: Pb0 2 + 
H 2 S0 4 + H 2 = PbS0 4 + 2ILO. 

(b) . At the negative plate: Lead (Pb) and Sulphate (S0 4 ) 
produce lead sulphate PbS0 4 . This may again be represented by 

Pb + S0 4 — PbS0 4 . 

From (a) and (b), above, we see 
that at the positive plate the chemical 
changes during discharge produce 
water and lead sulphate, whereas 
only lead sulphate is produced at the 
negative plate, showing that the posi¬ 
tive plate is acted upon to a greater 
extent by the acid than the negative 
plate is. The storage cell therefore 
fulfills the condition necessarv to 
have a current produced,namely,that 
we must have two unlike substances 
immersed in a liquid, the chemical 
action of which is greater upon one 
substance than upon the other. 

The chemical changes described in 
(a) and (b) are not instantaneous. 
That is, the lead, lead peroxide, and 
sulphuric acid of the fuly charged cell are not changed into lead 
sulphate and water as soon as a current begins to pass through the 
















































CHEMICAL ACTIONS WHICH PRODUCE ELECTRICTY 35 

cell. This action is a gradual one, small portions of these sub¬ 
stances being changed at a time. The greater the current that 
flows through the cell, the faster will the changes occur. The 
changes will continue to take place as long as any lead, lead 
peroxide, and sulphuric acid remain. The faster these are 
changed into lead sulphate and water, the shorter will be the 
time that the storage cell can furnish a current, or the sooner 
it will be discharged. When the cell is completely discharged, 
we will have the conditions shown in the lower part of the cell 
of Fig. 20. 

Taking the cell in its discharged condition, let us now connect 
the cell to a dynamo and send current through the cell from the 
positive to the negative plates. This is called “charging” the 
cell. The lead sulphate and water will now gradually be changed 
back into lead, lead peroxide, and sulphuric acicl. The lead sul¬ 
phate which is on the negative plate is changed to pure lead; 
the lead sulphate on the positive plate is changed to lead per¬ 
oxide, and sulphuric acid will be added to the water. The 
changes at the positive plate may be represented as follows: 

Lead sulphate (PbS0 4 ) and water (2H 2 0) and sulphate (S0 4 ) 
produce sulphuric acid (2ILSOJ and lead peroxide (Pb0 2 ), or 
PbS0 4 +2H 2 0+S0 4 =2H 2 S0 4 +Pb0 2 
Pb+S0 4 +2H 2 +20+S0 4 =2H 2 S0 4 +Pb0 2 
(Pb+20+2H 2 +S0 4 +S0 4 )=2H 2 S0 4 +Pb0 2 

The changes at the negative plate may be expressed as follows: 

Lead sulphate (PbSOJ and hydrogen (H 2 ) produce sulphuric 
acid (H 2 S0 4 ) and lead (Pb), or 

PbS0 4 +H 2 =H 2 S0 4 +Pb 

Pb+S0 4 +H 2 =H 2 S0 4 +Pb 

Pb+ (S0 4 +H 2 ) =H 2 S0 4 -f Pb 

These changes produced by sending a current through the cell 
are also gradual, and will take place faster as the cuirent is made 
greater. When all the lead sulphate has been used up by the 
chemical changes caused by the current, no further charging can 
take place. If we continue to send a current through the cell 
after it is fully charged, the water will continue to be split up into 
hydrogen and oxygen. Since, however, there is no more lead 










36 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


sulphate left with which the hydrogen and oxygen can combine 
to form lead, lead peroxide, and sulphuric acid, the hydrogen and 
oxygen rise to the surface of the electrolyte and escape from the 
cell. This is known as “gassing, ” and is an indication that the 
cell is fully charged. 


CHAPTER 5. 


HOW CHEMICAL ACTIONS PRODUCE ELECTRICITY. 


In Chapter 4 we studied the chemical changes that occurred in 
the cell both when the cell was producing a current, and when a 
current was sent through the cell from a dynamo. But we have 
not as yet learned how these chemical actions produce electricity. 
The fact that the chemical actions produce electricity, and 
that, on the other hand, electricity produces chemical changes 
shows that electricity and chemical changes are closely asso- 
coated. 

A complete study of the electricity which chemical changes 
make available would furnish material for a book many times 
thicker than this one, as it 
forms a distinct branch of 
science known as Electro- 
Chemistry. A general in¬ 
vestigation will be made, 
however. No chemical 
change, or chemical reac¬ 
tion is supposed to produce 
electricity, but merely to 
make it available for use. 

Thus the storage battery 
contains the electricity be¬ 
fore any chemical change 
takes place. As soon as the 
battery circuit is closed 
through the lamps or 
starting motor, however, 
the electric current flows 
out of the battery at the 

positive terminal, and back into the battery at the negative 
terminal. Where is the electricity, and in what form, and how 
does the mere closing of the battery circuit cause it to appear? 

37 



Link 


;VENTS 


Negitave 
Terminal- 
Link 



Fig. 21. Direction of Current Flow from 
Cell to Cell During Discha v ge 

(A ~ © 
























38 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


When we think of an electric current flowing through a wire, 
we take it for granted that at any point in the wire the cur¬ 
rent is flowing in one direction only, just like water flowing 
through a pipe. When, however, a current flows through a 
liquid, like the battery electrolyte, it is supposed to be flowing 
both from the positive to the negative, and from the negative to 
the positive. These currents are carried by the sulphuric acid. 
As long as this acid is not mixed with water, it cannot carry any 
current. When the acid is poured into the water, it is partly 
divided into hydrogen (H 2 ) and sulphate (S0 4 ). This happens 
as soon as the acid and water are mixed. The hydrogen has a 
certain amount of positive electricity attached to it, and the sul¬ 
phate a certain amount of negative electricity. Where did the 
electricity come from? It was in the acid in the first place, but 
as long as the acid was not separated into hydrogen and sulphate, 
the positive electricity of the hydrogen neutralized that of the 
sulphate. The particles which have the electricity attached to 
them are called “ions.” They are extremely small, and the elec¬ 
tricity they carry is spoken of as a positive or a negative 
“charge” of electricity, or simply “charge.” We then have a 
quantity of hydrogen ions which are carrying positive electricity 
or have a positive “charge.” Similarly the sulphate ions carry 
a certain amount of negative electricity, or have a negative 
“charge.” The ions are entirely unlike the substances as we 
see them and have different characteristics. 

Leaving the acid with its “charges” of electricity, let us con¬ 
sider the electrodes or plates. Like the acid, the lead and lead 
peroxide contain certain amounts of electricity, both positive 
and negative. When the electrodes are immersed in the elec¬ 
trolyte these amounts of positive and negative charges are made 
available. 

At the negative plate, which is composed of pure lead, some of 
the lead separates from the plate, and mixes with the acid in 
the form of “ions,” each ion carrying a small amount, or charge 
of electricity. The lead ion leaves a similar and equal amdunt 
negative electricity on the lead plate. Only a very few of these 
lead ions are formed as long as no current passes through the 
battery. This is due to the fact that the positive charge on the 


HOW CHEMICAL ACTIONS PRODUCE ELECTRICITY 39 


lead ion and the negative charge on the lead plate have a strong 
attraction for each other. After a few ions have been formed, 
the attraction is so strong that no more are formed. Similarly, 
for the positive plate, small particles of the lead peroxide enter 


CHARGED CELL ON OPEN CIRCUIT 



the electrolyte, and take with them certain quantities of nega¬ 
tive electricity, or negative charges, leaving the plate with an 
equal positive charge. As long as the circuit outside the battery 
is open, no current can flow, because the negative and positive 
quantities of electricity, or “charges” on the plates are kept 
there by the opposite charges on the ions that have entered the 










40 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


acid. The fact that the minute particles called "ions carry 
with them certain quantities of electricity is indicated by writing 
the signs “ + ” and “—” after them. Thus, a lead ion is written 
(Pb ++ ), and a lead peroxide ion (PbOy). 

Fig. 22 shows the conditions described above. At the negative 
plate is a layer of lead ions which have gone into the acid, carry¬ 
ing positive charges and leaving an equal number of negative 


CELL DISCHARGING! 



charges on the lead plate. Similarly, at the positive plate is a 
layer of lead peroxide ions which have entered the acid, carrying 
negative charges, and leaving an equal number of positive 
charges on the positive plate. The acid itself has been split by 
the water, into hydrogen ions and sulphate ions, the hydrogen 
ions carrying positive charges, and the sulphate ions carrying 
negative charges. The ions of the acid are distributed through¬ 
out the electrolyte. As the figure shows, the number of positive 


































































HOW CHEMICAL ACTIONS PRODUCE ELECTRICITY 41 


and negative ions are equal, and as they attract each other 

strongly, they cannot move away from each other, and hence no 
current can flow. 

If we now connect the positive and negative plates together 
through a starting motor, as shown in Pig. 23, conditions will 
be changed. The positive charges on the positive plate will move 
along the wire and through the motor to the negative plate. 
There they will meet the negative charges. In order that the 
positive and negative charges on the plates may send a current 
through the starting motor, the lead ions and the lead peroxide 
ions must be removed from the surfaces of the plates. Otherwise 
the attraction of the lead and lead peroxide ions for the charges 
on the plate will hold the latter on the plate. Now, each ion has 
a tendency to move through the acid. As soon as some of the 
negative charges start to leave the lead plate to go through the 
motor, the lead ions start to move toward the lead peroxide plate. 
They have hardly started to move, however, before they meet sul¬ 
phate ions from the acid. The sulphate ions and the lead ions 
combine and form lead sulphate. Similarly, the lead peroxide 
ions begin to leave the positive plate. They are then split up into 
lead ions (Pb f+ ) and oxygen ions (20~). This leaves hydrogen 
ions from the acid, and oxygen ions from the lead peroxide un¬ 
accounted for. The two have opposite charges, and hence attract 
each other, uniting to form water. This gives us lead sulphate 
and water as the final products of discharging a battery, which 
agrees with the equation on page 34. 

The lead of a negative plate, and the lead peroxide of the 
positive plate are called “active” materials. They are not the 
only substances which can be used for storage batteries. Many 
combinations for electrolyte and plates have been tried, but the 
lead, lead peroxide, and sulphuric acid combination has worked 
out to be the best combination for practical use. They do not 
create electricity, as was explained above, but the chemical 
changes that take place in the battery readjust the small quanti¬ 
ties of electricity or “charges” which are carried by the “ions’' 
so that we are able to force the charges to move through the 
starting motor, lamps, or other apparatus. The water in the bat¬ 
tery causes the “ions” to form as separate particles carrying 


42 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


‘‘charges.” Without water we could not have a battery, as the 
electricity bound up in the active materials would never be avail¬ 
able, because the negative and positive charges neutralize each 
other ordinarily, nad must be separated from each other long 
enough to be forced to run the starting motor, light the lamps 
and furnish current for the ignition. Once the charges are sepa- 


DISCMARGEP CELL 



rated, they have a tendency to unite with those of opposite sign. 
The water prevents a complete reunion of the ions carrying the 
charges, but the tendency they have to unite gives the voltage, or 
electromotive force of the battery. When a current is made to 
flow through the motor, charges are uniting and a current will 
continue to flow as long as there are charges available. As soon 

















































HOW CHEMICAL ACTIONS PRODUCE ELECTRICITY 43 


as charges unite through the motor, more are formed in the elec¬ 
trolyte from the lead, lead peroxide, and sulphuric acid. When 
these materials have all been used so that we have only lead sul¬ 
phate and water in the battery, as shown in Fig. 24, no more 
charges are available, and the battery can no longer produce a 
current. 

In practice, a battery is never discharged until all the lead, 
lead peroxide, and sulphuric acid are changed into lead sulphate 
and water. As lead sulphate is formed, it fills up the pores in 
the plates, and covers the remaining lead and lead peroxides so 
that they are practically sealed in and made useless. The removal 
of the sulphate becomes increasingly difficult as more is formed, 
and, therefore, a battery should not be discharged entirely. This 
subject will be treated more completely later. 




Fig. 25 


The battery is now completely discharged. We now send a 
continuous current through it so that the current enters through 
the positive terminal, and leaves through the negative terminal, 
Fig. 25. This direction of flow is just the reverse of the current 
produced by the battery in discharging. The current we are send¬ 
ing through the battery gradually puts it in a condition in which 
it can again furnish a current. We saw how the battery produces 
a current when it is fully charged, that is, when we had a plate 
of pure lead, a plate of lead peroxide and an electrolyte of acid 
and water. Now we are starting with two plates of lead sul¬ 
phate immersed in water. How does a current charge the battery? 

When a battery is completely discharged, we have lead sul- 










44 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 

phate at each plate, and water. The water has the power to 
split the lead sulphate into lead (Pb), and sulphate (S0 4 ). The 
water itself is separated, to a slight extent, into hydrogen (II 2 ), 
and oxygen (0). These parts into which the lead sulphate and 
water separate each carry a “charge” of electricity, some posi¬ 
tive, and some negative. The lead and hydrogen are positive, and 
the sulphate and oxygen negative. We thus have lead “ions” 
(PlW), sulphate ions (S0 4 ~“), hydrogen ions (H 2 + ), and oxygen 
ions (O'). As long as the battery is not being charged, the + 
and — charges attract each other, and no chemical changes occur. 
When the battery is connected to a generator for charging, the 
generator produces positive charges on the positive plate and 
negative charges on the negative plate. The positive charges 
on the positive plate will attract all the negatively charged ions, 
while the negative charges on negative plate will attract all 
the positively charged ions. As a result, the lead and hydrogen 
ions start to move toward the negative plate, and the sulphate 
and oxygen ions toward the positive plate. The Pb f+ which be¬ 
gins to move from the positive to the negative plate meets imme¬ 
diately with the 20 _ and Pb0 2 is formed. This seems to then 
become Pb0 2 ~ The positive charges on the positive plates 
attract the Pb0 2 _ ~, and the latter is deposited on the plate as 
ordinary lead peroxide. The Pb ++ at the negative plate, is at¬ 
tracted by the negative charges on the negative plate, and since 
the Pb +f is on the negative plates it is immediately deposited as 
metallic lead, since the negative and positive charges neutralize 
one another and take the charges away from the lead. This 
gives us the changes which occur at the plates so as to give us 
the lead and lead peroxide of a charged battery. We still need 
sulphuric acid however. At the positive plate, the sulphate ion 
meets the hydrogen ion, which is free to travel toward the nega¬ 
tive plate, and sulphuric acid is formed. At the negative plate, 
the sulphate ion starts to move toward the positive plate, but 
meets the hydrogen ion which is moving toward the negative 
plate, and sulphuric acid is formed, although half of the acid, is 
always separated into hydrogen and sulphate. This accounts 
for all the materials. 


1I0W CHEMICAL ACTIONS PRODUCE ELECTRICITY 45 


AVe have thus taken the battery through a charge and dis¬ 
charge, both chemically, and electrically. The actions described 
for discharge take place faster when a heavy current is drawn 
from the battery. The speed of the charge actions depends 
upon the voltage of the generator, the motions of the ions being 
increased in speed as the voltage is increased. As far as current 
How in and out of the battery is concerned, this depends upon 
the positive and negative charges on the positive and negative 
plates. AVhen the battery is discharging, these charges will pass 
into the external circuit with increasing speed as the resistance 
of the circuit decreases. AYhen the battery is being charged, the 
charges on the plate attract the charges on the ions, and when 
the charges reach the plates, the opposite charges on ion and 
plate neutralize one another. The result of the ions travelling in 
opposite directions in the electrolyte is to produce a current 
which seems to flow in only one direction in the external circuit. 
The ions of the lead, lead peroxide, and lead sulphate all tend 
to move toward one or the other battery plate, but because they 
are so few in number, and because there are so many hydrogen 
and sulphate ions in the electrolyte, they have hardly begun 
to move before they combine with the ions of the acid to form 
lead sulphate and water. Hence, the ions of the active plate 
materials move exceedingly minute distances. Those of the acid, 
especially the hydrogen ion move through all parts of the elec¬ 
trolyte. The chemical actions take place not only at the out¬ 
side surfaces of the plates, but wherever acid, lead or lead perox¬ 
ide, or lead sulphate come in contact with each other. AVe know 
that the acid soaks in to all parts of the plates, and therefore 
the actions take place throughout the entire plate. The materials 
on the plates must therefore be porous in order to allow the acid 
to soak into them easily. 

The “pasted” plate is used almost entirely for starting and 
lighting service. The plates are not made entirely of the spongy 
lead and lead peroxide. Neither of these substances are tough 
enough to be made into plates. They must, therefore, be held 
in place. AVe thus find that each plate consists of a skeleton 
framework of lead, the pastes filling up the spaces between the 
ribs,. 


CHAPTER 6. 


WHAT TAKES PLACE DURING DISCHARGE. 

Considered chemically, the discharge of a storage battery con¬ 
sists of the changing of the spongy lead and lead peroxide into 
lead sulphate, and the abstraction of the acid from the electro¬ 
lyte. Considered electrically, the changes are more complex, and 
require further investigation. The voltage, internal resistance, 
rate of discharge, capacity, and other features must be considered, 



13 \ 4 - 15 16 \~7 18 19 20 J 2 3 

TIME OF CHARGE-MINUTE S 


Fig. 26 


and the effects of changes in one upon the others must be studied. 
This proceeding is simplified considerably if we consider each 
point separately. The abstraction of the acid from the electro¬ 
lyte gives us the most reliable method of determining the con¬ 
dition of charge or discharge in the battery, and must also be 
studied. 


46 


























WHAT TAKES PLACE DURING DISCHARGE 


47 


Voltage Changes During Discharge. At the end of a charge, 
and before opening the charging circuit, the voltage of each cell 
is about 2.5 to 2.7 volts. As soon as the charging circuit is opened, 
the cell voltage drops rapidly to about 2.1 volts, within three or 
four minutes. This is due to the formation of a thin layer of 
lead sulphate on the surface of the negative plate and between 
the lead peroxide and the metal of the positive plate. Fig. 26 
shows how the voltage changes during the last eight minutes of 
charge, and how it drops rapidly as soon as the charging circuit is 
opened. The final value of the voltage after the charging circuit 
is opened is about 2.15-2.18 volts. This is more fully explained in 
Chapter 7. If a current is drawn from the battery at the instant 


VOLTS 



Fig. 27 


the charge is stopped, this drop is more rapid. At the beginning 
of the discharge the voltage has already had a rapid drop from 
the final voltage on charge, due to the formation of sulphate as 
explained above. When a current is being drawn from the bat¬ 
tery, the sudden drop is due to the internal resistance of the 
cell, the formation of more sulphate, and the abstracting of the 
acid from the electrolyte which fills the pores of the plate. The 
density of this acid is high just before the discharge is begun. 
It is diluted rapidly at first, but a balanced condition is reached 
between the density of the acid in the plates and in the main 
body of the electrolyte, the acid supply in the plates being main¬ 
tained at a lowered density by fresh acid flowing into them from 
the main body of electrolyte. After the initial drop, the voltage 
decreases more slowly, the rate of decrease depending on the 































48 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 

amount of current drawn from the battery. The entire process 
is shown in Fig. 27. Lead sulphate is being formed on the sur¬ 
faces, and in the body of the plates. This sulphate has a higher 
resistance than the lead or lead peroxide, and the internal resis¬ 
tance of the cell rises, and contributes to the drop in voltage. As 
this sulphate forms in the body of the plates, the acid is used 
up. At first this acid is easily replaced from the main body of 
the electrolyte by diffusion. The acid in the main body of the 
electrolyte is at first comparatively strong, or concentrated, caus¬ 
ing a fresh supply of acid to flow into the plates as fast as it 
is used up in the plates. This results in the acid in the electro¬ 
lyte growng weaker, and this, in turn, leads to a constant de¬ 
crease in the rate at which the fresh acid flows, or diffuses into 
the plates. Furthermore, the sulphate, which is more bulky than 
the lead or lead peroxide fills the pores in the plate, making it 
more and more difficult for acid to reach the interior of the plate. 
This increases the rate at which the voltage drops. 

The sulphate has another effect. It forms a cover over the 
paste which has not been acted upon, and makes it practically 
useless, since the acid is almost unable to penetrate the coating 
of sulphate. We thus have quantities of active material which 
are entirely enclosed in sulphate, thereby cutting down the 
amount of energy which can be taken from the battery. Thus the 
formation of sulphate throughout each plate and the abstraction 
of acid from the electrolyte cause the voltage to drop at a con¬ 
stantly increasing rate. 

Theoretically, the discharge may be continued until the voltage 
drops to zero, but practically, the discharge should be stopped 
when the voltage of each cell has dropped to 1.8. If the dis¬ 
charge is carried on beyond this point much of the spongy lead 
and lead peroxide have either been changed into lead sulphate, 
or have been covered up by the sulphate so effectively that they 
are almost useless. Plates in this condition require a very long 
charge in order to remove all the sulphate. 

The limiting value of 1.8 volts per cell applies to a continuous 
discharge at a moderate rate. At a very high current flowing 
for only a very short time, it is not only safe, but advisable to 


49 


WIIAT TAKES PLACE DURING DISCHARGE 

alloAv a battery to discharge to a lower voltage, the increased 
drop being due to the rapid dilution of the acid in the plates. 

The cell voltage will rise somewhat every time the discharge 
is stopped. This is due to the diffusion of the acid from the 
main bod} of electrolyte into the plates, resulting in an increased 
concentration in the plates. If the discharge is continuous, es¬ 
pecially if at a high rate, this rise in voltage will bring the cell 
up to its normal voltage very quickly on account of the more 
rapid diffusion of acid which will then take place. 

The voltage does not depend upon the area of the plate surface 
bat upon the nature of the active materials and the electrolyte. 
Hence, although the plates of a cell are gradually being covered 
with sulphate, the voltage measured when no current is flowing, 
will fall slowly and not in proportion to the amount of energy 
taken out of the cell. It is not until the plates are pretty 
thoroughly covered with sulphate, thus making it difficult for 
the acid to reach the active material, that the voltage begins to 
drop rapidly. This is shown clearly in Fig. 27, which shows 
that the cell voltage has dropped only a very small amount when 
the cell is 50% discharged. With current flowing through the 
cell, however, the increased internal resistance causes a marked 
drop in the voltage. Open circuit voltage is not useful, therefore 
to determine how much energy has been taken from the battery. 

Acid Density. The electrolyte of a lead storage battery is a 
mixture of chemically pure sulphuric acid, and chemically pure 
water, the acid forming about 30 per cent of the volume of elec¬ 
trolyte when the battery is fully charged. The pure acid has a 
* ‘specific gravity” of 1.835, that is, it is 1.835 times as heavy 
as an equal volume of water. The mixture of acid and water 
has a specific gravity of about 1.300. As the cell discharges, acid 
is abstracted from the electrolyte, and the weight of the latter 
must therefore grow less, since there will be less acid in it. The 
change in the weight, or specific gravity of the electrolyte is 
the best means of determining the state of discharge of a cell, pro¬ 
vided that the cell has been used properly. In order that the 
value of the specific gravity may be used as an indication of 
the amount of energy in a battery, the history of the battery 
must be known. Suppose, for instance, that in refilling the bat- 


50 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


tery to replace the water lost by the natural evaporation which 
occurs in the use of a battery, acid, or a mixture of acid and 
water has been used. This will result in the specific gravity 
being too high, and the amount of energy in the battery will be 
less than that indicated by the specific gravity. Again, if pure 
water is used to replace electrolyte which has been spilled, 
the specific gravity will be lower than it should be. In a bat¬ 
tery which has been discharged to such an extent that much of 



Fig. 28 


the paste has been covered by a layer of tough sulphate, or if 
a considerable amount of sulphate and active material has been 
loosened from the plates and has dropped to the bottom of the 
cells, it will be impossible to bring the specific gravity of the elec¬ 
trolyte up to 1.300, even though a long charge is given. There 
must, therefore, be a reasonable degree of certainty that a bat¬ 
tery has been properly handled if the specific gravity readings are 
to be taken as a true indication of the condition of a battery. 
Where a battery does not give satisfactory service even though 



































WHAT TAKES PLACE DURING DISCHARGE 


51 


the specific gravity readings are satisfactory, the latter are 
not reliable as indicating the amount of charge in the battery. 

As long as a discharge current is flowing from the battery, the 
acid within the plates is used up and becomes very much diluted. 
Diffusion between the surrounding electrolyte and the acid in 
the plates keeps up the supply needed in the plates in order to 
carry on the chemical changes. When the discharge is first begun, 
the diffusion of acid into the plates takes place rapidly because 
there is little sulphate clogging the pores in the paste, and because 
there is a greater difference between the concentration of acid in 
the electrolyte and in the plates than will exist as the discharge 
progresses. As the sulphate begins to form and fill up the pores of 
the plates, and as more and more acid is abstracted from the elec¬ 
trolyte, diffusion takes place more slowly. 

If a battery is allowed to stand idle for a short time after a 
partial discharge, the specific gravity of the electrolyte will de¬ 
crease because some of the acid in the electrolyte will gradually 
flow into the pores of the plates to replace the acid used up while 
the battery was discharging. Theoretically the discharge can be 
continued until all the acid has been used up, and the electro¬ 
lyte is composed of pure water. Experience has shown, how¬ 
ever, that the discharge of the battery should not be continued 
after the specific gravity of the electrolyte has fallen to 1.150. As 
far as the electrolyte is concerned, the discharge may be carried 
farther with safety. The plates determine the point at which the 
discharge should be stopped. When the specific gravity has 
dropped from 1.300 to 1.150, so much sulphate has been formed 
that it fills the pores in the active material on the plates. Fig. 28 
shows the change in the density of the acid during discharge. 

Changes at the Negative Plate. Chemically, the action at the 
negative plate consists only of the formation of lead sulphate 
from the spongy lead. The lead sulphate is only slightly soluble 
in the eletcrolyte and is precipitated as soon as it is formed, 
leaving hydrogen ions, which then go to the lead peroxide plate to 
form water with other hydrogen ions and oxygen ions released 
at the peroxide plate. The sulphate forms more quickly on the 
surface of the plate than in the inner portions because there is a 
constant supply of acid available at the surface, whereas the 


52 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


formation of sulphate in the interior of the plate requires that acid 
diffuse into the pores of the spongy lead to replace that already 
used up in the formation of sulphate. In the negative plate, how¬ 
ever the sulphate tends to form more uniformly throughout the 
mass of the lead, because the spongy lead is more porous than the 
lead peroxide, and because the acid is not diluted by the formation 
of water as in the positive plate. 

The sulphate has a greater volume than the lead from which 
it is formed and there is, therefore, an actual increase in the 
volume of the paste during discharge. The spongy lead being 
tough and coherent, this expansion does not cause the paste to 
fall from the plate, but simply results in a bulging out of mate¬ 
rial between the grid bars. 

Changes at the Positive Plate. In a fully charged positive plate 
we have lead peroxide as the active material. This is composed 
of lead and oxygen. From this fact it is plainly evident that 
during discharge there is a greater chemical activity at this plate 
than at the negative plate, since we must find something to com¬ 
bine with the oxygen in order that the lead may form lead sul¬ 
phate with the acid. In an ideal cell, therefore, the material 
which undergoes the greater change should be more porous than 
the material which does not involve as great a chemical reaction. 
In reality, however, the peroxide is not as porous as the spongy 
lead, and does not hold together as well. 

The final products of the discharge of a positive plate are lead 
sulphate and water. The lead peroxide must first be reduced to 
lead, which then combines with the sulphate from the acid to form 
lead sulphate, while the oxygen from the peroxide combines with 
the hydrogen of the acid to form water. There is, therefore, a 
greater activity at this plate than at the lead plate, and the forma¬ 
tion of the water dilutes the acid in and around the plate so that 
the tendency is for the chemical actions to be retarded. 

The sulphate which forms on discharge causes the active mate¬ 
rial to bulge out because it occupies more space than the peroxide. 
This causes the lead peroxide at the surface to begin falling to the 
bottom of the jar in fine dust-like particles, since the peroxide here 
holds together very poorly. 


CHAPTER 7. 


WHAT TAKES PLACE DURING CHARGE 

Voltage. Starting with a battery which has been discharged 
until its voltage has decreased to 1.8 per cell, we pass a current 
through it and cause the voltage to rise steadily. Fig. 29 shows 
the changes in voltage during charge. Ordinarily the voltage 
begins to rise immediately and uniformly. If, however, the bat¬ 
tery has been left in a discharged condtion for some time, or has 
been “over discharged,” the voltage rises very rapidly for a 
fraction of the first minute of charge and then drops rapidly to 



HOURS ON CHARGE 

Fig. 29 

the normal value and thereafter begins to rise steadily to the end 
of the charge. This rise at the beginning of the charge is due 
to the fact that the density of the acid in the pores of the plates 
rises rapidly at first, the acid thus formed being prevented from 
diffusing into the surroundng electrolyte by the coating of 
sulphate. As soon as this sulphate is broken through, diffusion 
takes place and the voltage drops. 

As shown in Fig. 29 the voltage remains almost constant be¬ 
tween the points M and N. At N the voltage begins to rise 
because the charging chemical reactions are taking place farther 
and farther in the inside parts of the plate, and the concentrated 
acid formed by the chemical actions in the plates is diffusing 

53 


























54 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


into the main electrolyte. This increases the battery voltage 
and requires a higher charging voltage. 

At the point marked 0, the voltage begins to rise very rapidly. 
This is due to the fact that the amount of lead sulphate in the 
plates is decreasing very rapidly, allowing the battery voltage 
to rise and thus increasing the charging voltage. Bubbles of gas 
are now rising through the electrolyte. 

At P, the last portions of lead sulphate are removed, acid is 
no longer being formed, and hydrogen and oxygen gas are formed 
rapidly. The gas forces the last of the concentrated acid out 
of the plates and in fact, equalizes the acid concentration through¬ 
out the whole cell. Thus no further changes can take place, and 
the voltage becomes constant at R at a voltage of 2.5 to 2.7. 

Density of Electrolyte. Discharge should be stopped when the 
density of the electrolyte, as measured with a hydrometer, is 
1.150. When we pass a charging current through the battery, 
acid is produced by the chemical actions which takes place in the 
plates. This gradually diffuses with the main electrolyte and 
causes the hydrometer to show a higher density than before. This 
increase in density continues steadily until the battery begins to 
“gas” freely. “Gassing” causes the electrolyte in the plates to 
mix thoroughly with that surrounding the plates and also in¬ 
creases the volume of the electrolyte and consequently decreases 

its densitv. 

«/ 

The progress of the charge is always determined by the density 
of the electrolyte. For this purpose in automobile batteries, a 
hydrometer is placed in a glass syringe having a short length of 
rubber tubing at one end, and a large rubber bulb at the other. 
The rubber tube is inserted in the cell and enough electrolyte 
drawn up into the syringe to float the hydrometer so as to be 
able to obtain a reading. This subject will be treated more fully 
in a later chapter. 

Changes at Negative Plate. The charging current changes lead 
sulphate into spongy lead, and acid is formed. The acid is mixed 
with the diluted electrolyte outside of the plates, resulting in a 
rise in temperature. This is not objectionable unless the tem¬ 
perature rises to more than 105° F., since the concentrated acid 
formed in the plates diffuses into the electrolyte more rapidly 


WIIAT TAKES PLACE DURING CHARGE 


55 


as the temperature is increased, thus hastening the charging 
actions. As the charging proceeds the active material shrinks or 
contracts, and the weight of the plate actually decreases on 
account of the difference between the weight and volume of the 
lead sulphate and spongy lead. If the cell has had only a normal 
discharge and the charge is begun soon after the discharge ended, 
the charge will proceed cpiickly and without an excessive rise in 
temperature. If, however, the cell has been discharged too far, 
or has been in a discharged condition for some time, the lead sul¬ 
phate will not be in a finely divided state as it should be, but 
will be hard and tough and will have formed an insulating coat¬ 
ing over the active material, causing the charging voltage to be 
high, and the charge will proceed slowly. When most of the lead 
sulphate has been reduced to spongy lead, the charging current 
will be greater than is needed to carry on the chemical actions, 
and will simply decompose the water into hydrogen and oxygen, 
and the cell “gasses.” Spongy lead is rather tough and coherent, 
and the bubbles of gas which form in the pores of the negative 
plate near the end of the charge force their way to the surface 
without dislodging any of the active material. 

Changes at the Positive Plate. When a cell has been dis¬ 
charged, a portion of the lead peroxide has been changed to lead 
sulphate, which has lodged in the pores of the paste and on its 
surface. During charge, the lead combines with oxygen from the 
water to form lead peroxide, and acid is formed. This acid dif¬ 
fuses into the electrolyte as fast as the amount of sulphate will 
permit. If the discharge has been carried so far that a consider¬ 
able amount of sulphate has formed in the pores and on the sur¬ 
face of the plate, the action proceeds very slowly, and unless a 
moderate charging current is used, gassing begins before the 
charge is complete, simply because the sulphate cannot absorb 
the current. The gas bubbles which originate in the interior of 
the plate force their way to the surface, and in so doing cause 
numerous fine particles of active material to break off and fall 
to the bottom of the jar. This happens because the lead per¬ 
oxide is a granular, non-coherent substance, with the particles 
held together very loosely, and the gas breaks off a considerable 
amount of active material. 




CHAPTER 8. 


CAPACITY OF STORAGE BATTERIES. 

The capacity of a storage battery is the product of the current 
drawn from a battery, multiplied by the number of hours this 
current flows. The unit in which capacity is measured is the 
ampere-hour. Theoretically, a battery has a capacity of 40 ampere- 
hours if it furnishes ten amperes for four hours, and if it is unable, 
at the end of that time, to furnish any more current. If we drew 
only five amperes from this battery, it should be able to furnish 
this current for eight hours. Thus, theoretically, the capacity of a 
battery should be the same, no matter what current is taken from 
it. That is, the current in amperes, multiplied by the number of 
hours the battery furnished this current should be constant. 

In practice, however, we do not discharge a battery to a lower 
voltage than 1.8 per cell, except when the rate of discharge is high, 
such as is the case when using the starting motor, on account of 
the increasing amount of sulphate and the difficulty with which 
this is subsequently removed and changed into lead and lead 
peroxide. The capacity of a storage battery is therefore measured 
by the number of ampere hours it can furnish before its voltage 
drops below 1.8 per cell. This definition assumes that the dis¬ 
charge is a continuous one, that we start with a fully charged bat¬ 
tery and discharge it continuously until its voltage drops to 1.8 
per cell. 

The factors upon which the capacity of storage batteries depend 
may be grouped in two main classifications: 

1. Design and Construction of Battery. 

2. Conditions of Operation. 

Design and Construction. 

Each classification may be subdivided. Under the Design and 
Construction we have: 


56 


CAPACITY OF STORAGE BATTERIES 


57 


(a) Area of plate surface. 

(b) Quantity, arrangement, and porosity of active mate¬ 

rials. 

(c) Quantity and strength of electrolyte. 

(d) Circulation of electrolyte. 

These sub-classifications require further explanation. Taking 
them in order: 

(a) Area of Plate Surface. It is evident that the chemical 
and electrical activity of a battery are greatest at the surface of 
the plates since the acid and active material are in intimate con¬ 
tact here, and a supply of fresh acid is more readily available to 
replace that which is depleted as the battery is discharged. This 
is especially true with high rates of discharge, such as are caused 
in starting automobile engines. Therefore, the capacity of a 
battery will be greater if the surface area of its plates is increased. 
With large plate areas a greater amount of acid and active mate¬ 
rials is available, and an increase in capacity results. 

(b) Quantity, Arrangement, and Porosity of Active Materials. 
Since the lead and lead peroxide are changed to lead sulphate 
on discharge, it is evident that the greater the amount of these 
materials, the longer can the discharge continue, and hence the 
greater the capacity. 

The arrangement of the active materials is also important, 
since the acid and pastes must be in contact in order to produce 
electricity. Consequently the capacity will be greater in a battery, 
all of whose active material is in contact with the acid, than in one 
in which the acid reaches only a portion of the active materials. It 
is also important that all parts of the plates carry the same amount 
of current, in order that the pastes may be used evenly. As a 
result of these considerations, we find that the active materials are 
supported on grids of lead, that the plates are made thin, and that 
they have large surface areas. For heavy discharge currents, such 
as starting motor currents, it is essential that there be large sur¬ 
face areas. Thick plates with smaller surface areas are more suit¬ 
able for low discharge rates. 

Since the inner portions of the active materials must have a 
plentiful and an easily renewable supply of acid, the active mate¬ 
rials must be porous in order that diffusion may be easy and rapid. 


58 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


(c) Quantity and Strength of Electrolyte. It is important that 
there be enough electrolyte in order that the acid may not become 
exhausted while there is still considerable active material left. 
An insufficient supply of electrolyte makes it impossible to obtain 
the full capacity from a battery. On the other hand, too much 
electrolyte, due either to filling the battery too full, or to having 
the plates in a jar that holds too much electrolyte, results in an 
increase in capacity. There is a danger present, however, because 
with an excess of electrolyte the plates will be discharged before 
the specific gravity of the electrolyte falls to 1.150. This results 
in overdischarge of the battery with its attendant troubles as will 
be described more fully in a later chapter. 

It is a universal custom to consider a battery discharged when 
the specific gravity of the electrolyte has dropped to 1.150, and 
that it is fully charged when the specific gravity of the electro¬ 
lyte has risen to 1.280-1.300. This, is true in temperate climates. 
In tropical countries, which may for this purpose be defined as 
those countries in which the temperature never falls below the 
freezing point, the gravity of a fully charged cell is 1.200 to 1.230. 
The condition of the plates is, however, the true indicator of 
charged or discharged condition. With the correct amount of 
electrolyte, its specific gravity is 1.150 when the plates have been 
discharged as far as it is considered safe, and is 1.280-1.300 when 
the plates are fully charged. When electrolyte is therefore poured 
into a battery, it is essential that it contains the proper proportion 
of acid and water in order that its specific gravity readings be a 
true indicator of the condition of the plates as to charge or dis¬ 
charge, and hence show accurately how much energy remains in 
the cell at any time. 

A question which may be considered at this point is why in 
automobile work a specific gravity of 1.280-1.300 is adopted for the 
electrolyte of a fully charged cell. There are several reasons. 
The voltage of a battery increases as the specific gravity goes up. 
Hence, with a higher density, a higher voltage can be obtained. 
Tf the density were increased beyond this point, the acid wo'uld 
attack the lead grids and the separators, and considerable corro¬ 
sion would result. Another danger of high density is that of 
sulphation, as explained in a later chapter. Another factor which 


CAPACITY OP STORAGE BATTERIES 


59 


enters is the resistance of the electrolyte. It is desirable that 
this be as low as possible. If we should make resistance measure¬ 
ments on various mixtures of acid and water, we should find that 
with a small percentage of acid, the resistance is high. As the 
amount of acid is increased, the resistance will grow less up to 
a certain point. Beyond this point, the resistance will increase 
again as more acid is added to the mixture. The resistance is 
lowest when the acid forms 30% of the total weight of the electro¬ 
lyte. Thus, if the electrolyte is made too strong, the plates and 
also the separators will be attacked by the acid, and the resistance 
of the electrolyte will also increase. The voltage increases as the 
proportion of acid is increased, but the other factors limit the 
concentration. If the electrolyte is diluted, its resistance rises, 
voltage drops, and the amount of acid is insufficient to give much 
capacity. The density of 1.280-1.300 is therefore a compromise be¬ 
tween the various factors mentioned above. 

(d) Circulation of Electrolyte. This refers to the passing of 
electrolyte from one plate to another, and depends upon the ease 
with which the acid can pass through the pores of the separators. 
A porous separator allows more energy to be drawn from the 
battery than a non-porous one. 

Operating Conditions. 

Considering now the operating conditions, we find several items 
to be taken into account. The most important are 

(e) Rate of discharge. 

(f) Temperature. 

(e) Rate of Discharge. As mentioned above, the ampere hour 
rating of a battery is based upon a continuous discharge, starting 
with a specific gravity of 1.280-1.300, and finishing with 1.150. The 
end of the discharge is also considered to be reached when the 
voltage per cell has dropped to 1.8. W ith moderate rates of 
discharge the acid is abstracted slowly enough to permit the 
acid from outside the plates to diffuse into the pores of the 
plates and keep up the supply needed for the chemical actions. 
With increased rates of discharge the supply of acid is used up 
so rapidly that the diffusion is not fast enough to hold up the 



GO 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


voltage. This fact is shown clearly by tests made to determine 
the time required to discharge a 100 Amp. Hr., G volt battery 
to 4.5 volts. With a discharge rate of 25 amperes, it required 160 
minutes. With a discharge rate of 75 amperes, it required 34 
minutes. From this we see that making the discharge rate 
three times as great caused the battery to be discharged in one 
fifth the time. These discharges were continuous, however, and 
if the battery were allowed to rest, the voltage would soon rise 
sufficiently, to burn the lamps for a number of hours. 

The conditions of operation in automobile work are usually 
considered severe. In starting the engine, a heavy current is 
drawn from the battery for a few seconds. The generator starts 
charging the battery immediately afterward, and the starting 
energy is soon replaced. As long as the engine runs, there is no 
load on the battery, as the generator will furnish the current 
for the lamps, and also send a charge into the battery. If the 
lamps are not used, the entire generator output is utilized to 
charge the battery, unless some current is furnished to the ignition 
system. Overcharge is quite possible. 

When the engine is not running, the lamps are the only load 
on the battery, and there is no charging current. Various drivers 
have various driving conditions. Some use their starter fre¬ 
quently, and make only short runs. Their batteries run down. 
Other men use the starter very seldom, and take long tours. 
Their batteries will be overcharged. The best thing that can 
be done is to set the generator for an output that will keep the 
battery charged under average conditions. 

From the results of actual tests, it may be said that modern 
lead-acid batteries are not injured in any way by the high dis¬ 
charge rate used when a starting motor cranks the engne. It is 
the rapidity with which fresh acid takes the place of that used 
in the pores of the active materials that affects the capacity of a 
battery at high rates, and not only limitation in the plates them¬ 
selves. Low rates of discharge should, in fact, be avoided more 
than the high rates. Battery capacity is affected by discharge 
rates, only when the discharge is continuous, and the reduction in 
capacity caused by the high rates of continuous discharge does not 
occur if the discharge is an intermittent one, such as is actually 


CAPACITY OF STORAGE BATTERIES 


61 


the case in automobile work. The tendency now is to design bat¬ 
teries to give their rated capacity in very short discharge periods. 
If conditions should demand it, these batteries would be sold to 
give their rated capacity while operating intermittently at a 
rate which would completely discharge them in three or four 
minutes. The only change necessary for such high rates of dis¬ 
charge is to provide extra heavy terminals to carry the heavy 
current. 

The Society of Automotive Engineers, in January, 1914, adopted 
a standard method of rating, starting and lighting batteries, as 
follows: 

“Batteries for combined lighting and starting service shall 
have two ratings, of which the first shall indicate the lighting 
ability, and the capacity in ampere hours of the battery when 
discharged continuously at a 5 ampere rate to a final voltage 
of 1.8 per cell, the temperature of the battery beginning such 
discharge being 80°F. The second rating shall indicate starting 
ability and shall be the rate in amperes at which the battery 
will discharge for twenty minutes continuously to a final voltage 
of not less than 1.65 per cell. The temperature of the battery 
beginning such discharge to be 80°F.” 

The discharge rate required under the average starting con¬ 
ditions is higher than that specified above, and would cause the 
required drop in voltage in about fifteen minutes. In winter, 
when an engine is cold and stiff, the work required from the bat¬ 
tery is even more severe, the discharge rate being equivalent in 
amperes to probably four or five times the ampere-rating of 
the battery. On account of the rapid recovery of a battery after 
a discharge at a very high rate, it seems advisable to allow a bat¬ 
tery to discharge to a voltage of 1.0 per cell when cranking an 
engine which is extremely cold and stiff. 

(f) Temperature. Chemical reactions take place much more 
readily at high temperatures than at low. Furthermore, the 
active materials are more porous, the electrolyte lighter, and 
the internal resistance less at higher temperatures. Opposed to 
this is the fact that at high temperatures, the acid attacks the 
grids and pastes, and lead sulphate is formed, even though no 
current is taken from the battery. Other injurious effects are 



62 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


the destructive actions of hot acid on the wooden separators used 
in most starting and lighting batteries. Greater expansion of 
paste will also occur, and this expansion is not, in general, uni¬ 
form over the surface of the plates. This results in unequal 
strains and the plates are bent out of shape, or “buckled. The 
expansion of the paste will also cause much of it to fall from 
the plates, and we then have “shedding.” 

When sulphuric acid is poured into water, a marked tempera- 


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2 

W 

0 

\5 

hi 

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HOURS 


Fig. 30 


ture rise takes place. When a battery is charged, acid is formed, 
and when this mixes with the diluted electrolyte, a temperature 
rise occurs. In discharging, acid is taken from the electrolyte, 
and the temperature has a tendency to drop. On charging, there¬ 
fore, there is danger of overheating, while on discharge, excessive 
temperatures are not likely. Fig. 30 shows the theoretical tem¬ 
perature changes on charge and discharge. The decrease in 
temperature given in the curve is not actually obtained in practice, 








































CAPACITY OF STORAGE BATTERIES 


63 


because the tendency of the temperature to decrease is balanced 
by the heat caused by the current passing through the battery. 

Another factor which should be considered in connection with 
capacity is the age of the battery. New batteries often do not 
give their rated capacity when received from the manufacturer. 
This is due to the methods of making the plates. The “paste” 
plates, such as are used in automobiles, are made by applying 
oxides of lead, mixed with sulphuric acid, to the grids. These 
oxides must be subjected to a charging current in order to pro¬ 
duce the spongy lead and lead peroxide. After the charge, they 
must be discharged, and then again charged. This is necessary 
because not all of the oxides are changed to active material on 
one charge, and repeated charges and discharges are required 
to produce the maximum amount of active materials. Some 
manufacturers do not charge and discharge a battery a sufficient 
number of times before sending it out, and after a battery is put 
into use, its capacity will increase for some time, because more 
active material is produced during each charge. 

Another thing which increases the capacity of a battery after 
it is put into use is that the active materials have a tendency to 
become more porous after they are put through the cycles of 
charge and discharge. This results in an increase in capacity 
for a considerable time after the battery is put into use. 

When a battery has been in use for some time, a considerable 
portion of the paste will have fallen from the positive plates, and 
a decrease in capacity will result. Such a battery will charge 
faster than a new one because the amount of sulphate which 
has formed when the battery is discharged is less than in a newer 
battery. Hence, the time required to reduce this sulphate will 
be less, and the battery will "come up” faster on charge. 


CHAPTER 9. 


INTERNAL RESISTANCE. 


The resistance offered by a storage battery to the flow of a 
current through it results in a loss of voltage, and in heating. 
Its value should be as low as possible, and, in fact, it is almost 
negligible even in small batteries, seldom rising above 0.05 ohm. 
On charge, it causes the charging voltage to be higher and on 
discharge causes a loss of voltage. Fig. 31 shows the variation 
in resistance. 



The resistance as measured between the terminals of a ('ell 
is made up of several factors as follows: 

1. Grids. This includes the resistance of the terminals, con¬ 
necting links, and the framework upon which the active materials 
are pasted. This is but a small part of the total resistance, and 
does not undergo any considerable change during charge and 
discharge. It increases slightly as its temperature goes up. 

64 
























































INTERNAL RESISTANCE 


G5 


2. Electrolyte. This refers to the electrolyte between the 
plates, and varies with the amount of acid and with tempera¬ 
ture. As mentioned in the preceding chapter, a mixture of acid 
and water in which the acid composes thirty per cent of the 
total weight of electrolyte has the minimum resistance. Diluting 
or increasing the concentration of the electrolyte will both cause 


an increase in resistance from the minimum value. The expla¬ 
nation probably lies in the degree to which the acid is split up 
into “ions” of hydrogen (II), and sulphate (S0 4 ). These “ions” 
carry the current through the electrolyte. Starting with a cer¬ 
tain amount of acid, let us see how the ionization progresses. 
With very concentrated acid, ionization does not take place, and 
hence, there are no ions to carr}^ current. As we mix the acid 
with water, ionization occurs. The more water used, the more 
ions, and hence, the less the resistance, because the number of 
ions available to carry the current increases. The ionization in¬ 
creases to a certain maximum degree, beyond which no more ions 
are formed. It is probable that an electrolyte containing thirty 
per cent of acid by weight is at its maximum degree of ioniza¬ 
tion and hence its lowest resistance. If more water is now added, 
no more ions are formed. Furthermore, the number of ions per 
unit volume of electrolyte will now decrease on account of the 
increased amount of water. There will therefore be fewer ions 
per unit volume to carry the current, and the resistance of the 
electrolyte increases. 

With an electrolyte of a given concentration, an increase of 
temperature will cause a decrease in resistance. A decrease in 
temperature will, of course, cause an increase in resistance. It 
is true, in general, that the resistance of the electrolyte is about 
half of the total resistance of the cell. The losses due to this re¬ 
sistance generally form only one per cent of the total losses, and 
are a practically negligible factor. 

3. Active Material. This includes the resistance of the pastes 
and the electrolyte in the pores of the active materials. This varies 
considerably during charge and discharge. It has been found that 
the resistance of the peroxide plate changes much more than that 


of the lead plate. The change in resistance of the positive plate 
is especially marked near the end of a discharge. The composi- 




66 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


tion of the active material, and the contact between it and the 
grid affect the resistance considerably. 

During charge, the current is sent into the cell from an external 
source. The girds therefore carry most of the current. The 
active material which first reacts with the acid is that near the 
surface of the plate, and the acid formed by the charging current 
mixes readily with the main body of electrolyte. Gradually, the 
charging action takes place in the inner portions of the plate, 
and concentrated acid is formed in the pores of the plate. As 
the sulphate is removed, however, the acid has little difficulty 
in mixing with the main body of electrolyte. The change in 
resistance on the charge is therefore not considerable. 

During discharge, the chemical action also begins at the sur¬ 
face of the plates and gradually moves inward. In this case, 
however, sulphate is formed on the surface first, and it becomes 
increasingly difficult for the fresh acid from the electrolyte to 
diffuse into the plates so as to replace the acid which has been 
greatly diluted there by the discharge actions. There is therefore 
an increase in resistance because of the dilution of the acid at the 
point of activity. Lffiless a cell is discharged too far, however, 
the increase in resistance is small. 

If a battery is allowed to stand idle for a long time it grad¬ 
ually discharges itself, as explained in Chapter 12. This is 
due to the formation of a tough coating of crystallized lead 
sulphate, which is practically an insulator. These crystals grad¬ 
ually cover and incapsulate the active material. The percentage 
change is not high, and generally amounts to a few per cent 
only. The chief damage caused by the excessive sulphation is 
therefore not an increase in resistance, but consists chiefly of 
making a poor contact between active material and grid, and of 
removing much of the paste from action by covering it. 


CHAPTER 10. 


CONDITIONS OF OPERATION ON THE CAR. 

The starting and lighting equipment of a gasoline automobile 
consists of three principal parts. 

1. The Battery. 

2. The Starting Motor. 

3. The Dynamo or Generator. 

The normal course of operation of this system consists of 

(a) Cranking the Engine With the Starting Motor. A switch 
is operated whereby the battery is connected to the starting 
motor, causing the latter to put the engine in motion. As soon 
as the gasoline has begun to vaporize, and is mixed with the 
correct amount of air, the sparks at the spark plugs ignite the 
mixtures of air and gasoline which are drawn into the engine 
cylinders. The engine then operates under its own power. The 
starting switch is then opened, disconnecting the motor from 
the battery. As long as the engine now continues to run under 
its own power, the starting motor is not used. 

(b) Charging the Battery. The current taken by the start¬ 
ing motor is a heavy one, and discharges the battery to a con¬ 
siderable extent. The energy taken out must therefore be re¬ 
placed. This is done by the dynamo. It, is important, however, 
that the dynamo should not be connected to the battery until 
the engine is operating above a certain minimum speed. This 
is necessary because a dynamo must develop a voltage which is 
greater than that of the battery before it can send a current 
through the battery so as to charge it. In order to develop this 
voltage, the speed of the dynamo must reach a certain value. 
Should the dynamo be connected to the battery at a lower speed, 
its voltage would be less than that of the battery, and instead 
of the dynamo sending a current through the battery, the battery 

67 





68 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


will send a current through the dynamo, and thus lose more 
energy. 

In most cars, the switch which connects the dynamo to the 
battery operates automatically, and does not operate until the 
voltage of the dynamo is slightly greater than that of the bat¬ 
tery. It is known as the “circuit breaker,” “cutout relay,” or 
simply the “cutout.” When the speed of the engine decreases, 
the voltage developed by the dynamo also decreases, and it 
becomes necessary to disconnect the dynamo from the battery 
when the dynamo voltage begins to drop below that of the 
batterv. This is also done by the cutout. Some cars have no 
automatic cutout, but use a hand operated switch. Others have 
both the automatic and the hand operated switches. 

(c) Furnishing Current to the Lamps. When the engine is 
not running, the battery is the only source of electricity on the 
car, and therefore operates the lights. When the engine is in 
operation, and the dynamo is sending a current through the 
battery, or is “charging” it, the dynamo also supplies the cur¬ 
rent to operate the lamps. 

These conditions of operation seem to be simple enough and 
as long as all parts work as they should, no difficulties are en¬ 
countered. In order to obtain satisfactory service, however, a 
number of things must be considered. 

Normal Conditions of Operation, Engine Not Running. 

When the engine is not running and the lamps and all other 
electrical equipment on the automobile are entirely disconnected 
from the battery by means of their controlling switches, there 
should be no current delivered by the battery. When there is no 
current delivered b}^ the battery under the above conditions, it in¬ 
dicates that there are no shorts or grounds connecting the positive 
and negative terminals of the battery or between the battery and 
the terminals of the various switches. It also indicates that the 
cutout, whether it be mechanical, electro-magnetic or manual, 
is open and no current is being delivered by the battery to the 
dynamo armature. When the battery shows a discharge with 


CONDITIONS OF OPERATION ON THE CAR 


69 


all the various controlling switches open, it may he due to 
grounds, short circuits or improper operation of the cutout. An 
inspection of the cutout will soon tell whether it is closed or 
not, and thus eliminate this possible cause of trouble, which 
reduces the difficulty to a short circuit or ground. A thorough 
inspection of the circuit will be necessary in order to determine 
the exact location of this kind of trouble. 

It is not advisable to equip an automobile with lamps whose 
candlepower exceeds that recommended by the manufacturer of 

the car or equipment maker. If the current delivered by the 
battery with the lamps turned on exceeds the normal value for 
that particular car, it may be due to lamps of higher candle- 
power having been substituted for the standard equipment or 
shorts and grounds. A short or ground may also be thrown onto 
the battery circuit when the switches controlling special elec¬ 
trical equipment, such as electric gear shifts, horns, trouble 
lamps, etc., are closed. It is always advisable to test each of 
these different circuits separately in order to make sure that 
they are free from shorts and grounds and not drawing an 
excessive current from the battery when in operation. 

Normal Condition of Operation, Engine Running. 

When a manual type of cutout is used the battery and 
dynamo are connected together through a switch whose opera¬ 
tion is controlled by the driver of the car. These switches are 
of different forms and arrangements, some being combined with 
the ignition switch, some with the starting switch, while some 
may operate to a certain extent independent of either the start¬ 
ing or ignition switches. With this type of Cutout the operation 
of the dynamo and the adjustment of the regulator controlling 
the output of the dynamo should be such that the battery will 
be charging when the engine is running at very low speeds. If 
this adjustment is not made, it is advisable not to run the engine 
at very low speeds at any time with the cutout closed, as the 
voltage of the dynamo will be lower than the voltage of the 
battery and, hence, the battery will discliaige back into the 





70 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


dynamo. A condition of this kind may be the cause of a dis¬ 
charged battery. The car speed at which the battery starts 
to discharge may be determined by connecting an ammeter in 
series with the battery and observing its indication as the speed 
of the engine or car is decreased. The speedometer indication, 
when the car is running and the ammeter indicating zero current, 
corresponds to what might be called the neutral speed; that is, 
the voltage of the generator and battery are equal and the bat¬ 
tery is neither charging nor discharging. This neutral speed 
should not be excessive as a high neutral speed means a rela¬ 
tively low dynamo voltage, and hence a corresponding decrease 
in output of the dynamo. 

If a mechanical cutout is used its adjustment should be such 
that the circuit connecting the dynamo and battery is not closed 
until the speed of the dynamo is sufficient to cause a generated 
voltage in its armature winding greater than the voltage of the 
battery. If this cutout closes too soon the battery will discharge 
when the circuit is first closed and will continue to do so until 
the speed of the dynamo is ample to cause the generated voltage 
in its armature winding to be equal to or greater than the voltage 
of the battery. This tj-pe of cutout may be tested by observing 
the indications of an ammeter connected in series with the bat¬ 
tery while the speed of the engine is gradually increased. If 
the voltage of the dynamo is less than the voltage of the battery 
when the cutout closes, the ammeter will indicate a discharge 
from the battery. If the voltage of the dynamo happens to be 
equal to the voltage of the battery when the circuit is closed, 
there will be no indication on the ammeter, but as the speed of 
the engine is increased, the ammeter will show a gradually in¬ 
creasing charge. If the voltage of the dynamo exceeds the 
voltage of the battery when the cutout closes, the charging 
current, as indicated on the ammeter will not gradually rise 
from zero to a maximum value with increase of engine speed, 
but the indication of the ammeter will suddenly jump from zero 
to a certain value when the cutout closes, depending upon how 
much the voltage of the dynamo exceeds the voltage of the 
battery and the resistance of the entire circuit. The current 


CONDITIONS OF OPERATION ON THE CAR 71 

then gradually increases from this value to a maximum value 
with increase in engine speed. 

The operation of the electromagnetic cutout should be such 
that the dynamo and battery are connected together when the 
voltage of the dynamo is high enough to cause a charging cur¬ 
rent to pass through the battery when the voltage of the battery 
is at its maximum value or the battery is practically fully 
charged. The value of the charging current at the instant the 
circuit is closed will depend upon the difference between the 
voltage of the dynamo and the voltage of the battery. This 
difference will be greatest when the battery is practically or 
completely discharged and a minimum value when the battery 
is fully charged. The operation of the cutout may be determined 
as described on page 234. 

The charging rate must be sufficiently high so that with all 
lamps turned on and the car running at a speed of about fifteen 
miles per hour, an ammeter connected at the battery will show 
some charge in spite of the current being drawn for lighting 
(lamp load). This does not mean, however, that the charge 
rate with the lamps turned off should always be equal to the 
lamp load, because of the variations in dynamo control. 

The charge rate with the lamps turned off should never exceed 
in amperes one-sixth of the total ampere-hour capacity of the 
battery, and except at extreme high speeds should never exceed 
one-eighth of this capacity. 

General Operating Conditions Which Govern the Action of 

a Battery. 

The greatest drain on the storage battery is the operation of 
the starting motor. Under no conditions should the starting 
motor be used to propel the car, as there will undoubtedly be 
permanent damage done to the battery. Damage due to such 
treatment may not appear for some time, but it is sure to come 
if the practice be followed to any extent. 

The starting motor should be used as economically as possible, 
and the engine started only when it is necessary to do so. Care 
should be exercised in the adjustment of the carburetor and 


72 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


ignition system so that it will not be necessary to crank the 
engine for a considerable period before it will start. A great 
many drivers have a habit of holding their foot on the starting 
switch after the engine starts to tire, which results in an unneces¬ 
sary discharge of the battery. 

The adjustment of the output of some dynamos is such that 
the dynamo very seldom reaches its maximum output due to the 
fact that the driver may not ordinarily operate the car at a high 
enough speed, on account of traffic regulations or road con¬ 
ditions, to enable the dynamo to develop its maximum voltage. 
In sncli cases the output of the dynamo should be increased 
when such an adjustment is possible. 

In some cases a car may be used almost entirely at night or 
at least a large part of the time that it is in use may be at night, 
and in such cases the drain on the battery may be excessive for 
the amount of charge put into it. The driver should use his 
starting motor as sparingly as possible, substitute lamps of lower 
candle power for the ones regularly supplied if such substitution 
gives ample light for driving purposes, and be careful in the 
use of the electric horn and other electrical accessories. In no 
case should the charging rate be increased to such an extent 
by adjusting the regulator that the dynamo or battery will be 
damaged. 

The efficiency of a storage battery is considerably less in cold 
weather than it is in warm weather, and this, coupled with the 
fact that the number of hours of darkness during which the car 
is likely to be used is greater in cold weather than in warm, often 
results in the battery becoming discharged, or failing to carry 
the load imposed upon it during the winter, even though it oper¬ 
ated very satisfactorily during the warm summer months. The 
engine is always harder to start in cold weather than it is in 
warm weather, due to the fact that the gasoline does not vaporize 
as readily and the oil in all the bearings and around the pistons 
is stiff, making the engines much harder to turn over. In such 
cases it is often necessary to increase the output of the dynamo 
during certain months of the year in order to make up for the 
loss in efficiency and increase in output the battery is called upon 
to supply. 


CONDITIONS OF OPERATION ON THE CAR 


73 


The condition of operation during the warm summer months 
and long days may on the other hand result in serious damage to 
the battery on account of excessive charging in proportion to 
discharge. During the summer the engine turns over more easily, 
the battery is much more efficient, the gasoline vaporizes more 
easily, and the lamps are not used nearly as much as they are 
in the winter. This condition of over-charging can be relieved 
to a certain extent by turning on all of the lamps with the en¬ 
gine not running and allowing the battery to discharge for a few 
hours at certain intervals, depending upon the speed at which 
the car is driven when in use, that is, upon the amount of charge 
put into the battery. 



CHAPTER 11. 


HOW TO TAKE CARE OF THE BATTERY ON THE CAR. 

The manufacturers of Starting and Lighting Equipment have 
designed their generators, cutouts, and current controlling de¬ 
vices so as to relieve the car owner of as much work as possible in 
taking care of batteries. The generators on most cars are auto¬ 
matically connected to the battery at the proper time, and also 
disconnected from it as the engine slows down. The amount of 
current which the dynamo delivers to the battery is automatically 
prevented from exceeding a certain maximum value. Under the 
average conditions of driving, a battery is kept in a good con¬ 
dition. It is impossible, however, to eliminate entirely the need 
of attention on the part of the car owner, and battery repairman. 

The repairman, especially, should know what charging currents 
the various makes and types of generators with which the auto¬ 
mobiles are equipped should produce. It is a good plan always 
to put an ammeter in series with the battery, run the engine with 
the lamps turned off, and measure the charging current which 
is being delivered to the battery. This should be done on every 
car that is brought in for repairs. The charging current actually 
received by the battery should be checked with the current the 
generator is intended to deliver, and for which the generator 
is adjusted before the car leaves the factory. If the generator 
is not delivering the proper current, find out why, and remedy 
the trouble. Otherwise the battery cannot be expected to do 
its work satisfactorily, and be fully charged. 

The storage battery requires but little attention, and this is 
the very reason why many batteries are neglected. Motorists 
often have the impression that because their work in caring for 
a battery is quite simple, no harm will result if they give the 
battery no attention whatever. If the battery fails to turn over 
the engine when the starting switch is closed, then instruction 

74 


IIOW TO TAKE CARE OF BATTERY ON THE CAR 


75 


books are studied. Thereafter more attention is paid to the 
battery. The rules to be observed in taking care of the battery 
which is in service on the car are not difficult to observe. It is 
while on the car that a battery is damaged, and the damage 
may be prevented by intelligent consideration of the battery’s 
housing and living conditions, just as these conditions are made 
as good as possible for human beings. 

1. Keep the Interior of the Battery Box Clean and Dry. On 
many cars the battery is contained in an iron box on the running 
board, or under the seat or floorboards. This box must be kept 
dry, and frequent inspection is necessary to accomplish this. 
Moisture condenses easily in a metal box, and if not removed 
will cause the box to become rusty. Pieces of rust may fall on 
top of the battery and cause corrosion and leakage of current 
between terminals. 

Occasionally, wash the inside of the box with a rag dipped in 
ammonia, or a solution of washing soda, and then wipe it dry. 
A good plan is to paint the inside of the box with asphaltum 
paint. This will prevent rusting, and at the same time will pre¬ 
vent the iron from being attacked by electrolyte which may be 
spilled, or may leak from the battery. 

Some batteries are suspended from the car frame under the 
floor boards or seat. The iron parts near such batteries should 
be kept dry and free from rust. If the battery has a roof of 
sheet iron placed above it, this roof should also be kept clean, 
dry and coated with asphaltum paint. 

2. Put Nothing But the Battery in the Battery Box. If the 
battery is contained in an iron box, do not put rags, tools, or 
anything else of a similar nature in the battery box. Do not 
lay pliers across the top of the battery, as shown in Fig. 32. Such 
things belong elsewhere. The battery should have a free air 
space all around it, Fig. 33. Objects made of metal will short- 
circuit the battery and lead to a repair bill. 

3. Keep the battery clean and dry. The top of the battery 
should be kept free of dirt, dust, and moisture. Dirt may find its 
way into the cells and damage the battery. A dirty looking bat¬ 
tery is an unsightly object, and cleanliness should be maintained 


70 


TIIE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


for the sake of the appearance of the battery if for no other 
reason. 

Moisture on top of the battery causes a leakage of current be¬ 
tween the terminals of the cells and tends to discharge the bat¬ 
tery. Wipe off all moisture and occasionally go over the tops 
of the cell connectors, and terminals with a rag wet with ammonia 
or a solution of washing soda. This will neutralize any acid 
which may be present in the moisture. 



Fig. 152. Do not drop tools on top of Battery 


The terminals and cell-to-cell connectors should be dried and 
covered with grease or vaseline. This protects them from being 
attacked by acid which may be spilled on top of the battery. The 
handles on the wooden case should also be greased in this manner, 
or should be coated with acid proof paint. If a deposit of a 
grayish or greenish substance is found on the battery terminals, 
handles or cell connectors, the excess should be scraped off and 
the parts should then be washed with a hot solution of washing 
soda until all traces of the substance have been removed. In 
scraping off the deposit, care should be taken not to scrape off 
any lead from terminals or connectors. After washing the parts, 





HOW TO TAKE CARE OF BATTERY ON THE CAR 77 

dry them and cover them with grease or vaseline. The grayish 
or greenish substance found on the terminals, connectors, or 
handles is the result of “corrosion,” or, in other words, the result 
ol* the action of the sulphuric acid in the electrolyte upon some 
metallic substance. 

The acid which causes the corrosion may be spilled on the bat¬ 
tery when hydrometer readings are taken. It may also be the 



Fig. 33. Battery installed so as to have air space 

on all sides 


result of tilling the cells too full, with subsequent expansion and 
overflowing as the temperature of the electrolyte increases during 
charge. Loose vent caps may allow electrolyte to be thrown out 
of the cell by the motion of the car on the road. A poorly sealed 
battery allows electrolyte to be thrown out through the cracks 
left between the sealing compound and the jars or posts. The 
leaks may be caused by the battery cables not having sufficient 
slack, and pulling on the terminals. 

The cap which tits over the filler tube at the center of the top 
of each cell is pierced by one or more holes through which gases 
formed within the cell may escape. These holes must be kept 









78 


TIIE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


open; otherwise the pressure of the gases may blow off the top 
of the cell. If these holes are found to be clogged with dirt they 
should be cleaned out thoroughly. 

The wooden battery case should also be kept clean and dry. 
If the battery is suspended from the frame of the car, dirt and 
mud from the road will gradually cover the case, and this mud 
should be scraped off frequently. Occasionally wash the case 



1'ig. 34. Battery held in place by “hold-down” bolts 


Avitli a rag wet with ammonia, or hot washing soda solution. 
Keep the case, especially along the top edges, coated with as- 
phaltum or some other acid proof paint, 

4. The battery must be held down firmly. If the battery is 
contained in an iron box mounted on the running-board, or in a 
compartment in the body of the car having a door at the side of 
the running-board, it is usually fastened in place by long bolts 
which hook on the handles or the battery case. These bolts, which 
are known as “hold-downs,” generally pass through the running- 
























HOW TO TAKE CARE OF BATTERY ON THE CAR 79 


board or compartment, Fig. 34, and are generally fastened in 
place by nuts. These nuts should be turned up so that the battery 
is held down tight. 

Other methods are also used to hold the battery in place, but 
whatever the method, it is vital to the battery that it is held down 
firmly so that the jolting of the car cannot cause it to move. The 
battery has rubber jars which are brittle, and which are cracked 
easily. Even if a battery is held down firmly it is jolted about to 
a considerable extent, and with a loosely fastened battery, the 
jars are bound to be cracked and broken. 

5. The cables connected to the battery must have sufficient 
slack so that they will not pull on the battery terminals, as this 
will result in leaks, and possibly a broken cover. 

The terminals on a battery should be in such a position that 
the cables may be connected to them easily, and without bending 
and twisting them. These cables are heavy and stiff, and once they 
are bent or twisted they are put under a strain, and exert a great 
force to straighten themselves. This action causes the cables 
to pull on the terminals, which become loosened, and cause a 
leak, or break the cover. 

6. Inspect the Battery twice every month in Winter, and once 
a week in Summer, to make sure that the Electrolyte covers the 

plates. To do this, remove the 
vent caps and look down through 
the filler tube. If a light is nec¬ 
essary to determine the level of 
the electrolyte,' use an electric 
lamp. Never bring an open flame, 
such as a match or candle near 
the filler tubes of a battery. Ex¬ 
plosive, gases are formed when 
a battery “gasses,” and the flame 
may ignite them, with painful in¬ 
jury to the face and eyes of the 
observer as a result. Such an 
explosion may also ruin the 
battery. 

During the normal course of operation of the battery, water 
from the electrolyte will evaporate. The acid never evaporates, 

















80 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


The surface of the electrolyte should be not less than one-half inch 
above the tops of the plates. A convenient method of measuring 
the height of the electrolyte is shown in Fig. 35. Insert one end 
of a short piece of a glass tube, having an opening not less than 
one-eighth inch diameter, through the tilling hole, and allow it to 
rest on the upper edge of the plates. Then place your linger over 
the upper end, and withdraw the tube. A column of liquid will 
remain in the lower end of the tube, as shown in the figure, and 
the height of this column is the same as the height of the electro¬ 



lyte above the top of the plates in the cell. If this' is less than 
one-half inch, add enough distilled water to bring the electrolyte 
up to the proper level. Fig. 36 shows the correct height of elec¬ 
trolyte in an Exide cell. 

Never add well water, spring water, water from a stream, or 
ordinary faucet water. These contain impurities which will dam¬ 
age the battery, if used. It is essential that distilled water be 
used for this purpose, and it must be handled carefully so as to 
keep impurities of any kind out of the water. Never use a metal 
can for handling water or electrolyte for a battery, but always 
use a glass or porcelain vessel. The water should be stored in 


























HOW TO TAKE CAKE OF BATTERY ON THE CAR 81 


glass bottles, and poured into a porcelain or glass pitcher when 
it is to be used. 

A convenient method of adding the water to the battery is to 
draw some up in a hydrometer syringe and add the necessary 
amount to the cell by inserting the rubber tube which is at the 
lower end into the vent hole and then squeezing the bulb until 
the required amount has been put into the cell. 

In the summer time it makes no difference when water is 
added. In the winter time, if the air temperature is below freez¬ 
ing (32° F), start the engine before adding water, and keep it 
running for about one hour after the battery begins to “gas/ 7 
A good time to add the water is just before starting on a trip, 
as the engine will then usually be run long enough to charge the 
battery, and cause the water to mix thoroughly with the electro¬ 
lyte. Otherwise, the water, being lighter than the electrolyte, 
will remain at the top and freeze. Be sure to wipe off water from 
the battery top after filling. If battery has been wet for some¬ 
time, wipe it with a rag dampened with ammonia or washing 
soda solution to neutralize the acid. 

Never add acid to a battery while the battery is on the car. 
By “acid 77 is meant a mixture of sulphuric acid and water. The 
concentrated acid, is of course, never used. The level of the elec¬ 
trolyte falls because of the evaporation of the water which is 
mixed with the acid in the electrolyte. The acid does not evap¬ 
orate. It is therefore evident that acid should not be added to a 
cell to replace the water which has evaporated. Some men be¬ 
lieve that a battery may be charged by adding acid. This is not 
true, however, because a battery can be charged only by passing 
a current through the battery from an outside source. On the 
car the generator charges the battery. 

It is true that acid is lost, but this is not due to evaporation, but 
to the loss of some of the electrolyte from the cell, the lost elec¬ 
trolyte, of course, carrying some acid with it. Electrolyte is lost 
when a cell gasses; electrolyte may be spilled; a cracked jar will 
allow electrolyte to leak out; if too much water is added, the ex¬ 
pansion of the electrolyte when the battery is charging may cause 
it to run over and be lost, or the jolting of the car may cause some 
of it to be spilled; if a battery is allowed to become badly sul- 



82 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


pliated, some of the sulphate is never reduced, or drops to the 
bottom of the cell, and the acid lost in the formation of the sul¬ 
phate is not regained. 

If acid or electrolyte is added instead of water, when no acid is 
needed, the electrolyte will become too strong, and sulphated 
plates will be the result. If a battery under average driving 
conditions never becomes fully charged, it should be removed 
from the car and charged from an outside source as explained 
later. If, after the specific gravity of the electrolyte stops rising, 
it is not of the correct value, some of the electrolyte should be 
drawn off and stronger electrolyte added in its place. This 
should be done only in the repair shop or charging station. 

Care must be taken not to add too much water to a cell, Fig. 
37. This will subsequently cause the electrolyte to overflow and 
run over the top of the battery, due to the expansion of the elec¬ 
trolyte as the charging current raises its temperature. The elec¬ 
trolyte which overflows is, of course, lost, taking with it acid 
which will later be replaced by water as evaporation takes place. 
The electrolyte will then be too weak. The electrolyte which 
overflows will rot the wooden battery case, and also tend to cause 
corrosion at the terminals. 

If directions are followed, it is impossible to overfill U. S. 
L., Fig. 14, or Exide, Fig. 36, batteries, as these batteries have 
special devices to prevent it, as has been described in Chapter 
3. In other batteries overfilling must be guarded against. 

If it is necessary to add water very frequently, the battery 
is operating at too high a temperature, or else there is a cracked 
jar. The high temperature may be due to the battery being 
charged at too high a rate, or to the battery being placed near 
some hot part of the engine or exhaust pipe. The car manufac¬ 
turer generally is careful not to place the battery too near any 
such hot part. The charging rate may be measured by connect¬ 
ing an ammeter in series with the battery and increasing the en¬ 
gine speed until the maximum current is obtained. For a six 
volt battery this should rarely exceed 14 amperes. If the charg¬ 
ing current does not reach a maximum value and then remain 
constant, or decrease, but continues to rise as the speed of the 
engine, is increased, the regulating device is out of order. An ex~ 




HOW TO TAKE CAKE OF BATTERY ON THE CAR 83 

cessive charging rate will cause continuous gassing if it is much 
above normal, and the temperature of the electrolyte will be 
above 100 F. Tn this way an excessive charging current may be 
detected. 

In hot countries or states, the atmosphere may have such a 
high temperature that evaporation will be more rapid than in 
temperate climates, and this may necessitate more frequent 
addition of water. 



Fig. 37. Cell with level of Electrolyte too high 

If one cell requires a more frequent addition of water than 
the other, it is probable that the jar of that cell is cracked. Such 
a cell will also show a low specific gravity, since electrolyte leaks 
out and is replaced by water. A battery whch has a leaky jar 
will also have a case which is rotted at the bottom and sides. A 
battery with a leaky jar must, of course, be removed from the 
car for repairs. 

7. The specific gravity of the electrolyte should be measured 

every two weeks and a permanent record of the readings made for 
future reference. 






















































84 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


The specific gravity of the electrolyte is the ratio of its weight 
to the weight of an equal volume of water. Acid is heavier than 
water, and hence the heavier the electrolyte, the more acid it con¬ 
tains, and the more nearly it is fully charged. In automobile bat¬ 
teries, a specific gravity of 1.300-1.280 indicates a fully changed 
battery. Generally, a gravity of 1.280 is taken to indicate a fully 
charged cell, and in this book this will be done. Complete read¬ 
ings are as follows: 

1.300-1.280—Fully charged. 

1.280-1.200—More than half charged. 

1.200-1.150—Less than half charged. 

1.150 and less—Completely discharged. 

For determining the specific gravity, a hydrometer is used. 

This consists of a small sealed glass tube 
with an air bulb and a quantity of shot at 
one end, and a graduated scale on the upper 
end. This scale is marked from 1.100 to 
1.300, with various intermediate markings as 


If a 

200 


/ 


1250 


1300 


7 / 


7 /; 


\\V 


\u 


to. 


m 


m 


\ 



Fig. 


38 


shown in Fig. 38. If this hydrometer is 
placed in a liquid, it will sink to a certain 
depth. In so doing, it will displace a certain 
volume of the electrolyte, and when it comes 
to rest, the volume displaced will just be 
equal to the weight of the hydrometer. It 
will therefore sink farther in a light liquid 
than in a heavy one, since it will require 
a greater volume of the light liquid to equal 
the weight of the hydrometer. The top 
mark on the hydrometer scale is therefore 
1.100 and the bottom one 1.300. Some hy¬ 
drometers are not marked with figures that 
the specific gravity, but are marked with the 

“Full 


Fig. 39 


or 


words 
” “Half 


indicate 

“Charged,’ “Half Charged,” “Discharged, 

Full,” “Empty,” in place of the figures. 

For convenience in automobile work, the hydrometer is en¬ 
closed in a large tube of glass or other transparent, acid proof 
material, having a short length of rubber tubing at its lower 
end. and a large rubber bulb at the upper end. The combination 























HOW TO TAKE CAKE 


OF 


BATTERY ON THE CAR 85 


is called a hydrometer-syringe, or simply hydrometer. See Fig¬ 
ure 39. In measuring the specific gravity of the electrolyte, the 
\ tuit cap is removed, the bulb is squeezed (so as to expel the air 
from it), and the rubber tubing inserted in the hole from which 
the cap was removed. I he pressure on the bulb is now released, 
and electrolyte is drawn up into the glass tube. The rubber tub 
ing on the hydrometer should not be withdrawn from the cell. 

When a sufficient amount of 
electrolyte has entered the 
tube, the hydrometer will 
boat. In taking a reading, 
there must be no pressure 
on the bulb, and the hy¬ 
drometer should be floating 
freely and not touching the 
walls of the tube. The tube 
must not be so full that the 
upper end of the hydrometer 
strikes any part of the bulb. 
The tube must be held in a 
vertical position, Fig. 40, 
and the stem of the hydrom¬ 
eter must be vertical. The 
reading will be the number 
on the stem at the surface 
of the electrolyte in the tube, 
Fig. 41. Thus if the hy¬ 
drometer sinks in the elec¬ 
trolyte, until the electrolyte 
comes up to the 1.150 mark on the stem, the specific gravity is 
1.150. : i ! | 

If the battery is located in such a position that it is impossible 
to hold the hydrometer straight up, the rubber tube may be 
pinched shut with the fingers, after a sufficient quantity of elec¬ 
trolyte has been drawn from the cell, and the hydrometer then 
removed and held in a vertical position. 

Specific gravity readings should never be taken soon after dis¬ 
tilled water has been added to the battery. The water and elec¬ 
trolyte do not mix immediately, and such readings will give mis- 



Fig. 40. Taking a Specific Gravity 
Reading 









86 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 

leading results. The battery should be charged several hours 
before the readings are taken. It is a good plan to take a 
specific gravity reading before adding any water, since accurate 
results can also be obtained in this way. 



Having taken a reading, the bulb is squeezed so as to return 
the electrolyte to the cell. 

Care should be taken not to spill the electrolyte from the hy¬ 
drometer syringe when testing the gravity. Such moisture on top 

ot the cells tends to cause a short circuit between the terminals 
and to discharge the battery. 




























































































ITOW TO TAKE CARE OP BATTERY ON THE OAR 87 


Tn making tests with the hydrometer the electrolyte should 
always be returned to the same cell from which it was drawn. 
Failure to do this will finally result in an increased proportion of 
acid in one cell and a deficiency of acid in others. 

The specific gravity of all cells of a battery should rise and fall 
together, as the cells are usually connected in series so that the 

same cm lent passes through each cell both on charge and dis¬ 
charge. 

If one cell of a battery shows a specific gravity which is de¬ 
cidedly lower than that of the other cells in series with it, and 
if this difference gradually increases, the cell showing the lower 
gravity has internal trouble. This probably consists of a short 
circuit, and the battery should be opened for inspection. If the 
electrolyte in this cell falls faster than that of the other cells, a 
leaky jar is indicated. The various cells should have specific 
gravities within twenty-five points of each other, such as 1.250 
and 1.275. 

If the entire battery shows a specific gravity below 1.200, but 
above 1.150, it is not receiving enough charge to replace the 
energy used in starting the engine and supplying current to the 
lights, or else there is trouble in the battery. Use starter and 
lights sparingly until the specific gravity comes up to 1.280-1.300. 
If the specific gravity is less than 1.150 remove the battery from 
the car and charge it on the charging bench, as explained later. 
The troubles which cause low gravity are given on pages 236 to 
238. 

It is often difficult to determine what charging current should 
be delivered by the generator. Some generators operate at a 
constant voltage slightly higher than that of the fully charged 
battery, and the charging current will change, being higher for 
a discharged battery than for one that is almost or fully charged. 
Other generators deliver a constant current which is the same 
regardless of the battery’s condition. To give data on this sub¬ 
ject is beyond the scope of this book. Complete information is 
given in the Ambu Charts published by the American Bureau of 
Engineering, Inc. 

In the constant voltage type of generator, the charging current 


88 


THE AUTOMOBILE 


STORAGE BATTERY 


automatically adjusts itself to the condition of the battery. In 
the constant current type, the exact value of current for which 
the generator is designed and adjusted is determined by the manu¬ 
facturer, and is intended to keep a battery charged under the 
average driving conditions. Individual cases often require that 
another current value be used. In this case, the output of the 
generator must be changed. With most generators, a current 
regulating device is used which may be adjusted so as to give 
a fairly wide range of current, the exact value chosen being the 
result of a study of driving conditions and of several trials. The 
charging current should never be made so large that the tem¬ 
perature of the electrolyte in the battery is always above 90 
Fahrenheit. A special thermometer is very useful in determining 
the temperature. See Fig. 42. The thermometer bulb is im¬ 
mersed in the electrolyte above the plates through the filler hole 
in the tops of the cells. 

Some batteries are divided into two or more sections which 
are connected in parallel while the engine is running and in 
such cases the cables leading to the different sections should 
all be of exactly the same length, and the contacts in the switch 
which connect these sections in parallel should all be clean and 
tight. If cables of unequal length are used, or if some of the 
switch contacts are loose and dirty, the sections will not receive 
equal charging currents, because the resistances of the charging 
circuits will not be equal. The section having the greatest 
resistance in its circuit will receive the least amount of charge, 
and will show lower specific gravity readings than for other sec¬ 
tions. In a multiple section battery, there is therefore a tendency 
for the various sections to receive unequal charges, and for one 
or more sections to run down continually. An ammeter should be 
attached with the engine running and the battery charging, first 
to one section and then to each of the others in turn. The am¬ 
meter should be inserted and removed from the circuit while the 
engine remains running and all conditions must be exactly the 
same, otherwise the comparative results will not give reliable 
indications. It would be better still to use two ammeters at the 
same time, one on each section of the battery. In case the am¬ 
perage of charge should differ by more than 10% between any two 



HOW TO TAKE CARE OF BATTERY ON THE CAR 89 


sections, the section receiving the low charge rate should be 
examined for proper height of electrolyte, for the condition of its 
terminals and its connections at the starting switch as described. 
Should a section have suffered considerably from such lack of 
charge its voltage will probably have been lowered. With all 
connections made tight and clean and with the liquid at the 
proper height in each cell this section may automatically receive a 
higher charge until it is brought back to normal. This high 
charge results from the comparatively low voltage of the section 
affected. 

In case the car is equipped with such a battery, each section 
must carry its proper fraction of the load and with lamps turned 
on or other electrical devices in operation the flow from the sev¬ 
eral sections must be the same for each one. An examination 
should be made to see that no additional lamps, such as trouble 
lamps or body lamps, have been attached on one side of the 
battery, also that the horn and other accessories are so connected 
that they draw from all sections at once. 

Some starting systems have in the past not been designed care¬ 
fully in this respect, one section of the battery having longer 
cables attached to it than the others. In such systems it is impos¬ 
sible for these sections to receive as much charging current as 
others, even though all connections and switches are in good con¬ 
dition. In other systems, all the cells of the battery are in series, 
and therefore must receive the same charging current, but have 
lighting wires attached to it at intermediate points, thus dividing 
the battery into sections for the lighting circuits. If the currents 
taken by these circuits are not equal, the battery section supplying 
the heavier current will run down faster than others. Fortunately, 
multiple section batteries are not being used to any great extent 
at present, and troubles due to this cause are disappearing. 

The temperature of the electrolyte affects the specific gravity, 
since heat causes the electrolyte to expand. If we take any bat¬ 
tery or cell and heat it, the electrolyte will expand and its specific 
oravitv will decrease, although the actual amount of acid is the 
same. The change in specific gravity amounts to one point, ap¬ 
proximately, for every three degrees Fahrenheit. If the elec- 
trolvte has a gravity of 1.250 at 70°F. and the temperature is 
raised to 73°F, the specific gravity of the battery will be 1.249. 


90 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


20 = 


10 


0C: 


&E 


BCe 


IQe 


&E 


& 


42. 


If the temperature is decreased to 67°F, the specific gravity will 
be 1.251. Since the change of temperature does not 
(5) change the actual amount of acid in the electrolyte, the 
/ X gravity readings as obtained with the hydrometer 
syringe should be corrected one point for every three 
degrees change in temperature. Thus 70°E is consid¬ 
ered the normal temperature, and one point is added to 
the electrolyte reading for every three degrees above 
70°F. Similarly, one point is subtracted for every 
three degrees below 70°F. For convenience of the hy¬ 
drometer user, a special thermometer has been devel¬ 
oped by battery makers. This is shown in Fig. 42. It 

has a special scale mounted beside the regular scale. 
This scale shows the corrections which must be made 

when the temperature is not 70°F. Opposite the 70° 
point on the thermometer is a “ 0 ’ ’ point on the special 
scale. This indicates that no correction is to be made. 
Opposite the 67° pouit on the regular scale is a —1, indi¬ 
cating that 1 must be subtracted from the hydrometer 
reading to find what th6 specific gravity would be if 
the temperature were 70°F. Opposite the 73° point on 
the regular scale is a -f-1, indicating that 1 point must 
be added to reading on the hydrometer, in order to 
reduce the reading of specific gravity to a temperature 
of 70°F. 

8. Operating Temperatures. Storage batteries are 
strongly affected by changes in temperature. Both ex¬ 
tremely high, and very low temperatures are to be 
avoided. At low temperatures the electrolyte grows 
denser, the porosity of plates and separators decreases, 
circulation and diffusion of electrolyte are made dif¬ 
ficult, chemical actions between plates and acid take 
place very slowly, and the whole battery becomes slug¬ 
gish, and acts as if it were numbed with cold. The voltage and 
capacity of the battery are lowered. 

As the battery temperature increases, the density of the electro 
lvte decreases, the plates and separators become more porous, the 


& 


2D 


0 



-♦19 
“♦It 
-♦17 
-♦i« 
-t IS 

— ♦U 
-♦15 
-♦I? 
-♦Ii 
—(J 
-♦9 
-♦6 
-♦7 
-♦€ 
-*■5 

-u 

-ti 

-n 

-+ 

—+o 

—2 
--5 

— 4 
—6 
—c. 

--7 
—* 
— 5 > 

— HO 
--II 
—-17 
-'12 
—M 
—15 
—It 
—17 
—* 
—15 
--X 
—H 
—V 

—z 


Fig. 42 
Special 
Thermom 
eter 

































HOW TO TAKE CARE OF BATTERY ON THE CAR 91 


internal resistance decreases, circulation and diffusion of electro¬ 
lyte take place much more quickly, the chemical actions between 
plates and electrolyte proceed more rapidly, and the battery vol¬ 
tage and capacity increase. A battery therefore works better at 
high temperatures. 

Excessive temperatures, say over 105°F, are, however, more 
harmful than low temperatures. Evaporation of the electrolyte 
takes place very rapidly, the separators are attacked by the hot 
acid and are ruined, the active materials and plates expand to 
such an extent that the active materials break away from the grids 
and the grids warp and buckle. The active materials themselves 
are burned and made practically useless. The hot acid also attacks 
the grids and the sponge lead and forms dense layers of sulphate. 
Such temperatures are therefore extremely dangerous. 

A battery that persistently runs hot, requiring frequent addi¬ 
tion of water is either receiving too much charging current, or 
has internal trouble. The remedy for excessive charge is to de¬ 
crease the output of the generator, or to burn the lamps during 
the day time. Motorists who make long touring trips in which 
considerable day driving is done, with little use of the starter, 
experience the most trouble from high temperature. The remedy 
is either to install a switch with which the generator may be dis¬ 
connected from the battery, or to use the lamps as mentioned 
above. 

Internal short-circuits cause excessive temperature rise, both 
on charge and discharge. Such short circuits usually result from 
buckled plates which break through the separators, or from an 
excessive amount of sediment. This sediment consists of active 
material or lead sulphate which has dropped from the positive 
plate and fallen to the bottom of the battery jar. All battery 
jars are provided with ridges which keep the plates raised an inch 
or more from the bottom of the jar, and which form pockets into 
which the materials drop. See Fig. 10. If these pockets be¬ 
come filled, and the sediment reaches the bottom of the plates, 
internal short circuits result which cause the battery to run down 
and cause excessive temperatures. 

If the electrolyte is allowed to fall below the tops of the plates, 
the parts of the plates above the acid become dry, and when the 



battery is charged grow hot. The parts still covered by the acid 
also become hot because all the charging current is carried by 
these parts, and the plate surface is less than before. The elec¬ 
trolyte will also become hot and boil away. A battery which is 
thus “charged while dry'’ deteriorates rapidly, its life being very 
short. 

If a battery is placed in a hot place on the car, this heat in 
addition to that caused by charging will soften the plates and 
jars, and shorten their life considerably. 

In the winter, it is especially important not to allow the battery 
to become discharged, as there is danger of the electrolyte freez¬ 
ing. A fully charged battery will not freeze except at an extremely 
low temperature. The water expands as it freezes, loosening the 
active materials, and cracking the grids. As soon as a charging 
current thaws the battery, active material is loosened, and drops 
to the bottom of the jars, with the result that the whole battery 
may disintegrate. Jars may also be cracked by the expansion of 
the water when a battery freezes. 

To avoid freezing, a battery should therefore be kept charged. 
The temperatures at which electrolyte of various specific gravities 
freezes are as follows: 


fie Gravity 

Freezing Pt. 

Specific Gravity 

Freezing Pt 

1.000 

32 °F. 

1.200 

-16°F. 

1.050 

26°F. 

1.250 

-58 °F. 

1.100 

—i> 

GO 

o 

brj 

1.280 

-92 °F. 

1.150 

5°F. 

1.300 

-96°F. 


9. Care of Storage Battery When Not in Service. A storage 
battery may be out of service for a considerable period at certain 
times of the year, for example, when the automobile is put away 
during the winter months, and during this time it should not be 
allowed to stand without attention. When the battery is to be out 
of service for only three or four weeks, it should be kept well 
filled with distilled water and given as complete a charge as possi¬ 
ble the last few days the car is in service by using the lamps and 
starting motor very sparingly. The specific gravity of the elec¬ 
trolyte should be tested in each cell, and it should be somewhere 


HOW TO TAKE CARE OF BATTERY ON THE CAR 93 


between 1.280 and 1.300. All connections to the battery should 
be removed, as any slight discharge current will in time complete¬ 
ly discharge it, and the possibilities of such an occurrence are to 
be avoided. If the battery is to be put out of service for several 
months, it should be given a complete charge by operating the 
dynamo on the car or by connecting it to an outside charging 
circuit. During the out-of-service period, water should be added 
to the cells every six or eight weeks and the battery given what is 
called a freshening charge; that is, the engine should be run until 
the cells have been gassing for perhaps one hour, and the battery 
may then be allowed to stand for another similar period with¬ 
out further attention. Water should be added and the battery 
fully charged before it is put back into service. It is desirable 
to have the temperature of the room where the battery is stored 
fairly constant and as near 70 degrees Fahrenheit as possible. 





CHAPTER 12. 


STORAGE BATTERY TROUBLES. 

The Storage Battery is a most faithful servant, and if given 
even a fighting chance, will respond instantly to the demands 
made upon it. Given reasonable care and consideration, it per¬ 
forms its duties faithfully for many months. When such care 
is lacking, however, it is soon discovered that the battery is sub¬ 
ject to a number of diseases, most of which are “preventable, 
and all of which, if they do not kill the battery, at least, greatly 
impair its efficiency. 

In discussing these diseases, we may consider the various parts 
of which a battery is composed, and describe the troubles to 
which they are subject. Every battery used on an automobile is 
composed of: 

1. Plates 

2. Separators 

3. Jars in which Plates, Separators, and Electrolyte are 

placed 

4. Wooden case 

5. Cell to Cell Connectors, and Terminals 

6. Electrolyte. 

Most battery diseases are contagious, and if one part fails, some 
of the other parts are affected. These diseases may best be con¬ 
sidered in the order in which the parts are given in the foregoing 
list. 

PLATE TROUBLES 

Plates are the “vitals’' of a battery, and their troubles affect 

t 

the life of the battery more seriously than those of the other 
parts. It is often difficult to diagnose their troubles, and the fol¬ 
lowing descriptions are given to aid in the diagnosis, 

94 


STORAGE BATTERY TROUBLES 


95 


Sulphation. 

1. Overdischarge. Some battery men say that a battery is 
snlphated wherever anything is wrong with it. Sulphation is the 
formation of lead sulphate on the plates. As a battery of the 
lead-acid type discharges, lead sulphate must form. There can 
be no discharge of such a battery without the formation of lead 
sulphate, which is the natural product of the chemical reactions 
by virtue of which current may be drawn from the battery. This 
sulphate gradually replaces the lead peroxide of the positive plate, 
and the spongy lead of the negative plate. When a battery has 
been discharged until the voltage per cell has dropped to 1.8, 
considerable portions of the lead peroxide and spongy lead remain 
on the plates. The sulphate which is then present is in a finely 
divided, porous condition, and can readily be changed back to 
lead peroxide and spongy lead by charging the battery. 

If the discharge is continued after the voltage has dropped 
to 1.8 per cell, an excessive amount of sulphate forms. It fills 
up the pores in the pastes, and covers up much of the active 
material which remains, so that it is difficult to change the sul¬ 
phate back to active material. Moreover, the expansion of paste 
which takes place as the sulphate forms is then so great that 
it causes the paste to break off from the plate and drop to the 
bottom of the jar. 

2. Allowing a Battery to Stand Idle. When lead sulphate is 
first formed, it is in a finely divided, porous condition, and the 
electrolyte soaks through it readily. If a battery which has been 
discharged is allowed to stand idle without being charged, the 
lead sulphate crystals grow by the combination of the crystals 
to form larger crystals. The sulphate, instead of having a very 
large surface area, upon which the electrolyte may act in chang¬ 
ing the sulphate to active material, as it does when it is first 
formed, now presents only a very small surface to the electrolyte, 
and it is therefore only with great difficulty that the large crystals 
of sulphate are changed to active material. The sulphate is a 
poor conductor, and furthermore, it covers up much of the re¬ 
maining active material so that the electrolyte cannot reach it. 

A charged battery will also become sulphated if allowed to 





96 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


stand idle, because it gradually becomes discharged, even though 
no wires of any kind are attached to the battery terminals. How 
this takes place is explained later. The discharge and formation 
of sulphate continue until the battery is completely discharged. 
The sulphate then gradually forms larger crystals as explained 
in the preceding paragraph, until all of the active material is 
either changed to sulphate, or is covered over by the sulphate 
so that the electrolyte cannot reach it. The sulphate thus forms 
a high resistance coating which hinders the passage of charging 
current through the battery. It is for this reason that sulphated 
plates should be charged at a low rate. The chemical actions 
which are necessary to change the sulphate to active material 
can take place but very slowly, and thus only a small current 
can be absorbed. Forcing a large current through a sulphated 
battery merely results in decomposition of the water in the 
electrolyte. This results in gassing, which causes chips of the 
sulphate to break off from the plates, and a large amount of the 
paste may in this way be lost. Moreover, since the sulphate does 
not form uniformly throughout the plate, the parts which are the 
least sulphated will carry the charging current, causing them to 
become heated. The heating damages the plates and separators, 
and causes buckling, as explained later. 

If batteries which have been discharged to 1.8 volts per cell are 
allowed to stand idle without being charged, they will, of course, 
continue to discharge themselves just as fully charged batteries 
do when allowed to stand idle. 

3. Starvation. If a battery is charged and discharged inter¬ 
mittently, and the discharge is greater than the charge, the battery 
will never be fully charged, and lead sulphate will always be 
present. Gradually this sulphate forms the large tough crystals 
that cover tin* active material and remove it from action. This 
action continues until all parts of the plate are covered with 
the crystalline sulphate and we have the same condition that 
results when a battery is allowed to stand idle without any charge. 

4. Allowing Electrolyte to Fall Below Tops of Plates. If the 
electrolyte is allowed to fall below the tops of the plates, so that 
the pastes are exposed to the air, the parts thus exposed will 
gradually become sulphated. The spongy lead of the negative 


plate, being in a very finely divided state, offers a very large 
surface to the oxygen of the air, and is rapidly oxidized, the 
chemical action causing the paste to become very hot. The 
charging current, in passing through the parts of the plates not 
covered by the electrolyte also heats the pastes. The electrolyte 
which occasionally splashes over the exposed parts of the plates 
and which rises in the pores of the separators, is heated also, and 
since hot acid attacks the pastes readily, sulphation takes place 
quickly. The parts above the electrolyte, of course, cannot be 
charged and sulphate continues to form. Soon the whole exposed 
parts are snlphated as shown in Fig. 118. 

As the level of the electrolyte drops, the electrolyte becomes 
stronger, because it is only the water which evaporates, the acid 
remaining and becoming more and more concentrated. The re¬ 
maining electrolyte and the parts of the plates covered by it be¬ 
come heated by the current, because there is a smaller plate area 
to carry the current, and because the resistance of the electrolyte 
increases as it grow r s more concentrated. Since hot acid attacks 
the active materials, sulphation also takes place in the parts of 
the plates still covered by the electrolyte. 

The separators in a battery having the electrolyte below the 
tops of the plates suffer also, as will be explained later. See 
page 269. 

5. Impurities. These are explained later. See page 102. 

6. Adding Acid Instead of Water. The sulphuric acid in the 
electrolyte is a heavy, oily liquid that does not evaporate. It is 
only the water in the electrolyte which evaporates. Therefore, 
when the level of the electrolyte falls, only water should be 
added to bring the electrolyte to the correct height. There are, 
however, many car owners who still believe that a battery may 
be charged by adding acid when the level of the electrolyte falls. 
Batteries in which this is done then contain too much acid. This 
leads to two troubles. The first is that the readings taken with 
a hydrometer will then be misleading. A specific gravity of 
1.150 is ahvays taken to indicate that a battery is discharged, and 
a specific gravity of 1.280 that a battery is charged. These two 
values of specific gravity indicate a discharged and charged con¬ 
dition of the battery ONLY WHEN THE PROPORTION OF 




98 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


ACID IN THE ELECTROLYTE IS CORRECT. It is the condi¬ 
tion of the plates, and not the specific gravity of the electrolyte 
which determines when a battery is either charged or discharged. 
With the correct proportion of acid in the electrolyte, the specific 
gravity of the electrolyte is 1.150 when the plates are discharged 
and 1.280 when the plates are charged, and that is why specific 
gravity readings are generally used as an indication of the con¬ 
dition of the battery. 

If there is too much acid in the electrolyte, the plates will be 
in a discharged condition before the specific gravity of the 
electrolyte drops to 1.150, and will not be in a charged condition 
until after the specific gravity has risen beyond the usual value. 
As a result of these facts a battery may be over-discharged, and 
never fully charged, with the resulting formation of sulphate. 
The second trouble caused by adding acid to the electrolyte is 
that the acid will then be too concentrated and attacks both 
plates and separators. This will cause the plates to become sul- 
phated, and the separators rotted. 

7. Overheating. This was explained in Chapter 11. See page 
90. 

A small amount of sulphate, instead of being harmful, is to be 
desired. The sulphate crystals act as a cement to hold the paste 
together, especially the positive paste. Lead Peroxide does not 
stick together well, and the sulphate holds the paste in the grids. 
For this reason, overcharging causes more harm than slight un¬ 
dercharging, since it removes all the sulphate and causes exces¬ 
sive loss of active material. As long as the amount of sulphate 
does not become excessive, and does not form between the pastes, 
and the grids, its presence is not objectionable. 

Buckling. 

This is the bending or twisting of plates due to unequal expan¬ 
sion of the different parts, of the plate, Figs. 116 and 117. It is 
natural and unavoidable for plates to expand. As a batter dis¬ 
charges, lead sulphate forms. This sulphate occupies more space 
than the lead peroxide and spongy lead, and the pastes expand. 
Heat expands both pastes and grids. As long as all parts of a 



STORAGE BATTERY TROUBLES 


99 


plate expand equally, no buckling will occur. Unequal expan¬ 
sion, however, causes buckling. 

1. Overdischarge. If discharge is carried too far, the expan¬ 
sion of the active material on account of the formation of lead 
sulphate will bend the grids out of shape, and may even break 
them. 

2. Continued Operation with Battery in a, Discharged Condi¬ 
tion. AVlien a considerable amount of lead sulphate has formed, 
and current is still drawn from the battery, those portions of the 
plate which have the least amount of sulphate will carry most 
of the current, and will therefore become heated and expand. 
The parts covered with sulphate will not expand, and the result 
is that the parts that do expand will twist the plate out of shape. 
A normal rate of discharge may be sufficient to cause buckling 
in a sulphated plate. 

3. Charging at High Rates. If the charging rate is excessive, 
the temperature will rise so high that excessive expansion will 
take place. This is usually unequal in the different parts of the 
plate, and buckling results. With a battery that has been over- 
discharged, the charging current will be carried by those parts of 
the plates which are the least sulphated. These parts will there¬ 
fore expand while others will not, and buckling results. 

4. Non-Uniform Distribution of Current Over the Plates. In a 
battery which has not been over-discharged, buckling may result 
if the current carried by the various parts of the plate is not uni¬ 
form on account of faulty design, or careless application of the 
paste. This is a fault of the manufacturers, and not the operating 
conditions. 

5. Defective Grid Alloy. If the metals of which the grids are 
composed are not uniformly mixed throughout the plate, areas of 
pure lead may be left here and there, with air holes at various 
points. The electrolyte enters the air holes, attacks the lead and 
converts the grid partly into active material. This causes expan¬ 
sion and consequent distortion and buckling. 

Buckling will not necessarily cause trouble, and batteries with 
buckled plates may operate satisfactorily for a long time. If, 
however, the expansion and twisting has caused much of the 
active material to break away from the grid, or has loosened the 


> > 


j 






100 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


active material from the grids, much of the battery capacity is 
lost. Another danger is that the lower edges of a plate may press 
against the separator with sufficient force to cut through it, touch 
the next plate, and cause a short-circuit. 

If the buckling is caused by defective plates, there is no remedy 
except to avoid discharging the plate very far, and protect the 
battery from the effects of heat. If over-discharge, or other con¬ 
ditions not resulting from defective plates have caused buckling, 
and if the active material has not been loosened from the grids, 
or has not dropped to the bottom of the cell, it is possible to 
straighten the negatives by pressing, as explained in Chapter 15. 

Shedding, or Loss of Active Material. 

1. Normal Shedding. It is natural and unavoidable for the 
positives to shed. Lead Peroxide is a powder-like Substance, the 
particles of which do not hold together. A small amount of 
sulphate will cement the particles together to a considerable 
extent. At the surface of the plate, however, this sulphate is 
soon changed to active material, and the peroxide loses its co¬ 
herence. Particles of peroxide drop from the plates and fall 
to the space in the bottom of the jar provided for this purpose. 

Bubbles of gas which occur at the end of a charge blow some of 
the peroxide particles from the plate. The electrolyte moving 
about as the battery is jolted by the motion of the car washes par¬ 
ticles of peroxide from the positive plates. Any slight motion be¬ 
tween positive plates and separators rubs some peroxide from the 
plates. It is therefore entirely natural for shedding to occur, 
especially at the positives. The spongy lead of the negatives is 
much more elastic than the peroxide, and hence very little shed¬ 
ding occurs at the negative plates. LTsually one group of nega¬ 
tives will outlast several groups of positives. The shedding at 
the positives explains why the grooved side of the separator is 
always placed against the positive plate. The grooves, being ver 
tical, allow the peroxide to fall to the bottom of the jar, where 
it accumulates as sediment, or “mud.” 

2. Excessive Charging Rate, or Overcharging. If a battery is 
charged at too high a rate, only part of the current is used to pro- 



101 


STORAGE BATTERY TROUBLES 


duce the chemical actions by which the battery is charged. The 
balance of the current decomposes the water of the electrolyte 
into hydrogen and oxygen, causing gassing. As the bubbles ot* 
gas force their way out of the plates, they blow off particles of the 
active material. 

When a battery is overcharged, the long continued gassing has 
tiie same effect as described in the preceding paragraph. 

3. Charging Sulphated Plates at too High a Rate. In sulpha ted 
plates, the chemical actions which take place as a battery is 
charged can proceed but very slowly, because the sulphate, be¬ 
sides being a poor conductor, has formed larger crystals which 
present only a small surface for the electrolyte to act upon, and 
has also covered up much of the remaining active material. Since 
the chemical actions take place slowly, the charging current must 
be kept at a low value. If too lieav}" a charging current is used, 
some of the current will simply cause gassing as explained in No. 
2 above. The gas bubbles will break off pieces of the sulphate, 
which then fall to the bottom of the jars as ‘‘mud.” 

4. Charging Only a Part of the Plate. If the electrolyte falls 
below the tops of the plates, and the usual charging current is 
sent into the battery, the current will be too great for the plate 
area through which it passes, and hence gassing and shedding will 
result as already explained. 

The same condition exists in a battery in which one or more 
plates have been broken from the strap, either because of mechani¬ 
cal vibration or because of impurities such as acetic acid in im¬ 
properly treated separators. The remaining plates are called up¬ 
on to do more work, and carry the entire charging current. Gas¬ 
sing and shedding will result. 

5. Freezing. If a battery is given any care whatever, there is 
little danger of freezing. The electrolyte of a fully charged bat¬ 
tery with a specific gravity of 1.280 freezes at about 92° below 
zero. With a specific gravity of 1.150, the electrolyte freezes 
at about 5° above zero. A frozen battery therefore indicates 
gross neglect. 

As the electrolyte freezes, the water of the electrolyte expands. 
Since there is electrolyte in all the inner parts of the plate, the 
expansion as the water in the paste freezes forces the pastes out 





102 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


of the grids. The expansion also cracks the rubber jars, and 
bulges out the ends of the battery case. 

The result of shedding, provided no other troubles occur, is 
simply to reduce the capacity of the plates. The positives, of 
course, suffer more from shedding than the negatives do, shedding 
being one of the chief weaknesses of the positives. There is no 
remedy for this condition. When the shedding has taken place to 
such an extent that the capacity of the battery has fallen very 
low, new plates should be installed. After a time, the sediment 
space in the bottom of the jar becomes filled with sediment, and 
touches the plates. This short-circuits the cell, of course, and 
new plates must be installed, and the jars washed out thoroughly. 

Loose Active Material. 

This refers to a condition in which the active materials are no 
longer in contact with the grid. Corrosion, or sulphation, of the 
grids themselves is generally present at the same time, since the 
chemical actions are shifted from the active material to the grids 
themselves. 

1. Overdischarge. As a battery discharges, the lead sulphate 
which forms causes an expansion of the active material. In the 
positives this results in shedding. In the negatives, the spongy 
lead is puffed out, resulting in the condition known as “bulged 
negatives” as illustrated in Fig. 122. 

2. Buckling. As a plate grid is bent out of shape, the active 
material, especially the peroxide, breaks loose from the grid, 
since the peroxide cannot bend as much as the grids. This occurs 
in the negatives also, though not to such an extent as in the 
positives. 

In the case of the positives, there is no remedy, and the plates 
should be discarded. The negatives, however, may be fully 
charged, and then straightened, and the active material forced 
back flush with the grids by pressings, as described in Chapter 15. 

Impurities. 

Impurities may be divided into two general classes. The first 
class includes those which do not attack the separators or grids, 


103 


STORAGE BATTERY TROUBLES 


but merely cause internal self-discharge. The second class in¬ 
cludes those which attack the grids or separators. 

1. Impurities Which Merely Cause Self-discharge. This in¬ 
cludes metals other than lead. If these metals are in solution in 
the electrolyte, they deposit on the negative plate, during charge, 
in their ordinary metallic slate, and form small cells with the 
spongy lead. These small cells discharge as soon as the charg¬ 
ing circuit is opened, and some of the lead is changed to lead 
sulphate. This, of course, causes a loss in capacity. Free hydro¬ 
gen is given off by this local discharge, and so much of it is at 
times given off that the hydrogen bubbles give the electrolyte a 
milky appearance. 

Copper, silver, gold, and platinum are the most active in form¬ 
ing small local cells. These metals form local cells which have 
comparatively high voltages, and which take away a consider¬ 
able portion of the energy of a cell. Platinum is especially active, 
and a small amount of platinum will prevent a negative plate 
from taking a charge. Gradually, however, the spongy lead 
covers up the foreign metal and prevents it from forming local 
cells. 

Iron also forms local cells which rob the cell of a consider¬ 
able portion of its capacity. This may be brought into the cell 
by impure acid or water. Iron remains in solution in the elec¬ 
trolyte, and is not precipitated as metallic iron. The iron in solu¬ 
tion travels from the positive to the negative plate, and back 
again, causing a local discharge at each plate. It is, moreover, 
very difficult to remove the iron, except by pouring out all of 
the electrolyte. Even a small amount of iron will cause a con¬ 
siderable loss of charge in a battery which is left on open circuit 
for a day. Manganese acts the same as the iron. 

2. Impurities Which Attack the Plates. In general, this class 
includes acids other than sulphuric acid, compounds formed from 
such acids, or substances which will readily form acids by chemi¬ 
cal action in the cell. Nitric acid, hydrochloric or muriatic acid, 
and acetic acid belong in this class of impurities. Organic matter 
in a state of decomposition attacks the lead grids readily. 

Impurities in the second class dissolve the lead grids, and the 
plate disintegrates and falls to pieces, since its backbone is de- 


104 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


stroyed. When a battery which contains these impurities is 
opened, it will be found that the plates crumble and fall apart 
at the slightest touch. See Fig. 119. 

Separators which have not been treated properly introduce 
acetic acid into a cell. The acetic acid attacks and rots the 
lead, especially the lugs projecting above the electrolyte, and the 
plate connecting straps. The plates will generally be found broken 
from the connecting strap, with the plate lugs broken and 
crumbled. 

As for remedies, there is not much to be done. Impurities in 
the first class merely decrease the capacity of the battery. If the 
battery is fully charged, and the negatives then washed thor¬ 
oughly, some of the impurities may be removed. Impurities of 
the second class have generally damaged the plates beyond re¬ 
pairs by the time their presence is suspected. 

The best thing to do is to keep impurities out of the battery. 
This means that only distilled water, which is known to be ab¬ 
solutely free from impurities should be used. 

Impurities which exist in the separators, or acid cannot be de¬ 
tected readily, but in repairing a battery, separators furnished 
by one of the reliable battery makers should be used. Pure acid 
should also be used. Tins means that only chemically pure, or 
“C. P.’ 1 acid, also known as battery acid should be used. In 
handling the acid in the shop, it should alwa} r s be kept in its 
glass bottle, and shoidd be poured only into a glass, porcelain, 
earthenware, lead, or rubber vessel. Never use a vessel made of 
anv other material. 


Corroded Grids. 

When the grids of a plate are attacked chemically, they become 
thin and weak, and may be spoken of as being corroded. 

1. Impurities. Those impurities which attack the lead grids, 
such as acids other than sulphuric acid, compounds formed from 
these acids, or substances which will readily form acids dissolve 
some of the lead which composes the grids. The grids gradually 
become weakened. The decrease in the amount of metal in the . 


STORAGE BATTERY TROUBLES 


105 


grids increases the internal resistance of the cell and give a 
tendency for temperatures to he higher in the cell. The contact 
between grids and active material is in time made poor, if the 
action of the impurities continues for any length of time, the plate 
becomes very weak, and breaks at the slightest touch. 


Pure water will dissolve lead if air has access to the lead. The 
dissolved lead forms in crystals. It is therefore best not to keep 
plates immersed in water for a considerable length of time. The 
lead dissolves slowly, and in ordinary work the plates are not 
left under water long enough to cause any damage. 

Water containing organic matter in a state of decomposition 
dissolves lead with comparative ease. 

2. Sulphated Plates. In plates which are badly sulphated, the 
contact between paste and grids is loosened due to the expansion 
of the paste. The surfaces of the grids are then subjected to the 
action of the acid and sulphate forms on them. It is difficult to 
do anything with such plates, as the grids are practically insulated 
from the active material. 

3. High Temperatures. Anything that raises the temperature 
of the electrolyte, such as too high a charging rate, causes the 
acid to attack the grids and form a layer of sulphate on them. 
The sulphate is changed to active material on charge, and the 
grids are thereby weakened. 

4. High Gravity. If acid is used to replace the water which 
evaporates from the electrolyte, the grids are sulphated by the 
concentrated acid. This trouble will also be found in cells hav¬ 
ing low electrolyte. The remaining electrolyte contains a high 
percentage of acid, and, furthermore, it becomes heated when 
current is passing through the cell. Corrosion in this case is 
very rapid, as the acid is both concentrated and hot and thus 
attacks the lead strongly.^? 

5. Age. Grids gradually become v T eak and brittle as a battery 
remains in service. The acid in the electrolyte, even though the 
electrolyte has the correct gravity and temperature, has some 
effect upon the grids, and in time this weakens them. During 
the life of a battery it is at times subjected to high temperatures, 
impurities, sulphation, etc., the combined effects of which result 
in a gradual weakening of the grids. 


106 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


Granulated Negatives. 

1. Age. The spongy lead of the negative plate gradually 
assumes a “grainy” or “granulated” appearance. The lead 
then seems to be made up of small grains, like grains of sand, 
instead of being a smooth paste: This action is a natural one, 
and is due to the gradual increase in the size of the particles of 
the lead. The plate loses its porosity, the particles cementing 
together and closing the pores in the lead. The increase in the 
size of the particles of the spongy lead decreases the amount 
of surface exposed to the action of the electrolyte, and the plate 
loses capacity. Such plates should be thrown away, as charging 
and discharging will not bring the paste back to its original 
state. 

2. Heat will also cause the paste to become granulated, and 
its surface to become rough or even blistered. 

Heating of Negatives Exposed to the Air. 

When charged negatives are exposed to the air, there is a 
decided increase in their temperature. Spongy lead is in an 
extremely finely divided state, the particles of lead being very 
minute, and forming a very porous mass. When the plate is ex¬ 
posed to the air, rapid oxidation takes place because the oxygen 
of the air has a very large surface to act upon. The oxidation 
causes the lead to become heated. The heating, of course, raises 
the temperature of the electrolyte, and the hot acid attacks both 
grids and lead. 

Fully charged negatives should therefore be watched carefully 
when removed from a battery. When they become heated and 
begin to steam, they should be dipped in water until they have 
cooled. They may then be removed from the water, but should 
be dipped whenever they begin to steam. After they no longer 
heat, they may be left exposed to the air. 

This method of dipping the negatives to prevent overheating 
has always been followed. Recently, however, the Electric 
Storage Battery Company, which makes the Exide batteries, has- 
decided not to take any steps to prevent the heating of the nega¬ 
tives when exposed to the air,-stating that their plates were not 


107 


STORAGE BATTERY TROUBLES 


injured by tlie heating which takes place. The repairman should, 
however, continue to dip the negatives in order to he on the safe 
side. 

Negatives With Very Hard Active Material. 

This is the characteristic condition of badly sulphated negatives. 
The active material may be as hard as a stone. The best method 
of treating such negatives is to charge them in distilled water. 
See Chapter 15. 

Bulged Negatives. 

This is a characteristic of a completely discharged negative. 
The lead sulphate which forms as a battery discharges is bulkier 
than the spongy lead, and the lead expands and bulges out be¬ 
tween the ribs of the grid. The grids in such negatives are likely 
to be corroded. Such plates must be given a full charge and 
pressed, as will be explained later. See Fig.172. 


Negative With Soft, Mushy Active Material. 

1. Overcharge. This condition arises in plates which are con¬ 
tinually overcharged, not at a rate which causes excessive tem¬ 
perature, but at normal rates. Cars which make long daylight 
tours, with little use of the starting motor and lamps are likely 
to have batteries in this condition. See Fig. 120. 

2. High Gravity. Gravity above 1.300 causes the acid to act 
upon the spongy lead and soften it. 

3. Heat will soften the spongy lead also. The softened spongy 
lead is loosened and falls from the grids, as shown in Fig. 120. 
Little can be done for such negatives. 


Negatives With Roughened Surface. 

This is caused by slight overheating, and is not a serious 
condition. 

Blistered Negatives. 

This condition is caused by considerable overheating. Blisters 
form on the surface of the paste. These blisters leave a smooth, 


108 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE 


BATTERY 


clean cut hole in the paste. The overheating in such plates has 
generally been severe, and it is safe to discard the plates. 


Frozen Positives. 


A battery which is allowed to stand in a cold place while com¬ 
pletely discharged will freeze. The water in the electrolyte ex¬ 
pands as it freezes, cracking the rubber jars and bulging out the 
end of the wooden case. As the electrolyte which fills the pores 
of the positive plates freezes and expands, it breaks the paste 
loose from the grids. When the battery thaws, the paste does 
not go back into the grids. When such a battery is opened, and 
the groups separated, the positive paste sticks to the separators 
in large pieces, Fig. 112, and that remaining in the grids falls out 
very easily. There is no hope for a battery which has been frozen, 
and it should be junked. 

Rotted, Disintegrated Positives. 

1. Impurities. This has already been discussed. See page 
102 . 

2. Overheating. The hot electrolyte dissolves the lead of the 
grids and that which is dissolved is never converted back to lead. 
Continued overheating wears out the grids, and the paste also, 
and the plate falls to pieces at the slightest pressure. 

3. Age. Positives gradually distintegrate due to the prolonged 
action of the electrolyte on the grids, an occasional overheating, 
occasional use of impure water, etc. 

Positives which are rotted and disintegrated are, of course, 
hopeless, and must be junked. 

Buckled Positives. 

As previously described, buckling is caused by unequal expan¬ 
sion. If the buckling is only slight, the plates may be used as 
they are. If the plates are badly buckled, the paste will be found 
to be loose, and the plates cannot be straightened. Such positives 
should be discarded. 


STORAGE BATTERY TROUBLES 


109 


Positives That Have Lost Considerable Active Material. 

This is the result of continued shedding, the causes of which 
have already been given. If the shedding is only slight, and the 
plate is good otherwise, it may be used again. If such active 
material has been lost, the plates must be discarded. 

Positives With Soft Active Material. 

Too m'uch acid in the electrolyte, or continued operation at 
high temperatures, will soften the peroxide, and make the plates 
unfit for further use. 

Positives With Hard, Shiny Active Material. 

This condition is found in batteries that have been charged 
with the acid below the tops of the plates. The parts of the 
positives above the acid is continually being heated by the charg¬ 
ing current. It becomes hard and shiny, and has cracks running 
through it. The peroxide becomes orange or brick colored, and 
the grids deteriorate. The part of the plate below the electrolyte 
suffers also, as explained more fully on page 96. Such plates 
should be discarded. 

Plates Which Have Been Charged in Wrong Direction. 

Such plates have been partly reversed, so that there is lead 
peroxide and spongy lead on both positive and negative plates. 
If the active materials have not become loosened from the grids, 
and the grids have not been disintegrated and broken, the plates 
may be reversed by the following method. 

Separate the positive and negative groups. Now mesh each 
group with a group of unpasted grids which are burned together 
just as the pasted grids are. Put in separators. You will then 
have six sets, three of which consist of the positive plates meshed 
with unpasted grids, and three of the negative plates meshed 
with unpasted grids. The unpasted grids used with the positives 
must have the same number of grids as the negative plates. 
Similarly, the unpasted grids used with the negative plates must 
have the same number of grids as the positive plates. In speak- 


110 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


ing of positive and negative plates, we mean the plates which 
originally were positive and negative. 

This arrangement will give six sets of plates, and these should 
be put into six battery jars. Fill the jars with 1.180 electrolyte. 
Connect the six cells thus formed in series, and then connect to 
the charging circuit. Take one of the jars containing an origin¬ 
ally positive group. Connect these positives to the positive wire 
of the charging line. Connect the unpasted grids in this jar to 
the unpasted grids in a jar containing an originally negative 
group. Connect this negative group to the originally positive 
group in the next jar, and so on. The complete circuit will be: 

Positive group to line. Unpasted grids—unpasted grids—nega¬ 
tives—positives—unpasted grids—unpasted grids—negatives— 
positives—unpasted grids—unpasted grids—negatives to negative 
wire of charging line. 

Charge at about one-twelfth of the nominal ampere hour 
capacity of the battery from which the plates were taken. Keep 
this current constant. Watch the voltage of each cell carefully. 
When measuring the voltage open the charging circuit. The 
voltage of each cell on open circuit will at first be in an opposite 
direction to that due to the charging line. When this cell voltage 
has dropped to 0.6 volts per cell, raise the charging rate to about 
three times its original value. Continue charging at this rate 
until the cell voltage passes through zero and comes up to 0.6 
per cell in the opposite direction, opening the charging circuit to 
determine when this has occurred. Then reduce the rate to a 
value that will maintain a fine, even gassing throughout the re¬ 
mainder of the charge. When the voltage per cell stops rising 
the charge is complete. Then assemble the positives and nega¬ 
tives in their original jars, put in separators, fill with 1.280 
electrolyte, and give a final charge. Balance the electrolyte and 
finish up the battery as described in Chapter 15. 

SEPARATOR TROUBLES. 

1. Not Properly Expanded Before Installation. Separators in 
stock must be kept moist. This not only prevents them from 
becoming dry and brittle, but' keeps them fully expanded. If 


Ill 


STORAGE BATTERY TROUBLES 


separators which have been kept dry in stock are installed in a 
battery, they do their expanding inside the battery. This causes 
them to project beyond the edges of the plates. The crowding to 
which they are subjected causes them to crack. Cracked sep¬ 
arators permit “treeing" between plates, with a consequent short 
circuit. 

2. Not Properly Treated. Separators which have not been 
given the proper chemical treatment are likely to develop Acetic 
acid after they are in the battery. Acetic acid dissolves the lead 
grids, the plate lngs, and the plate connecting straps rapidly. If 
the plate lugs are found broken, and crumble easily, acetic is 
very likely present, especially if bubbles of foam rise from the 
electrolyte when the battery is on charge. 

3. Cracked. Separators should be carefully “candled”— 
placed in front of a light and looked through. Cracks, resinous 
streaks, etc., mean that the separator should not be used, as they 
would breed trouble. 

4. Rotted and Carbonized. This may be the result of old age, 
overheating, or high gravity electrolyte. 

5. Pores Clogged. Impurities, dirt from impure water, and 
lead sulphate fill the pores of a separator and prevent the proper 
circulation of the electrolyte. The paste of frozen positives also 
fills up the pores of a separator. 

6. Edges Chiseled Off. A buckling plate will cut through the 
lower edge of a separator and short circuit the cell. Holes will 
be cut through any part of a separator by a buckling plate, or a 
negative with bulged active material. 

Separators form the weakest part of a battery, but at the same 
time perform a very important duty. New separators should 
therefore be installed whenever a battery is opened for repairs.. 
Repairs should never be attempted on separators. 

JAR TROUBLE. 

Battery jars are made of hard rubber, and are easily broken. 
They are not acted upon by the electrolyte, or any of the im¬ 
purities which may be found in the jar. Their troubles are all 
mechanical, and consist of being cracked, or having small holes 


112 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


through the walls. Jars are softened by high temperatures, but 
this does no particular harm unless they are actually burned by 
an open flame or red hot metal. The causes of jar troubles are 
as follows: 

1. Rough Handling. By far the most common cause of jar 
breakage is rough handling by careless or inexperienced persons. 
If one end of a battery rests on the floor, and the other is allowed 
to drop several inches, broken jars will probably result from the 
severe impact of the heavy lead plates. Storage batteries should 
be handled as if made of glass. 

When installed on a car, the springs protect the battery from 
shock to a considerable extent, but rough roads or exceptionally 
severe jolts may break jars. 

2. Battery Not Properly Fastened. In this case a battery is 
bumped around inside the battery compartment, and damage is 
very likely to result. 

3. Any Weight Placed on Top of the Battery is transmitted 
from the links to the plates, and by them to the bottom of the 
jars. Batteries should always be stored in racks, and not one 
on top of another. The practice of putting any weight whatever 
on top of a battery should be promptly discouraged. 

4. Freezing. This condition has already Been explained. It 
causes a great many broken jars every winter. 

5. Groups Not Properly Trimmed. The outside negative plates 
in a cell come just inside the jar, and the strap ends must be 
carefully trimmed off flush with the plates, to prevent them from 
breaking the top of the jars. Jars have slightly rounded corners, 
and are somewhat narrower at the extreme ends than nearer the 
center. A group may therefore go into a jar quite readily when 
moved toward the other end of the jar to that into which the 
post strap must go when in proper position for the cover. When 
flic group is forced back into its proper position the strap may 
break the jar. It is a good plan not only to trim the ends of. the 
negative straps perfectly flush, but to round the strap corners 
where they go into the jar corners. 

6. Defective Jars, (a) A jar not properly vulcanized may 
come apart at the seam. 


(b) A small impurity in the rubber may dissolve in the acid 
and leave a minute pin-hole. 

All jars are carefully tested at the factory and the likelihood 
of trouble from defective jars is extremely small. 

7. Explosion in Cell, (a) II ydrogen and oxygen gases evolved 
during charging make a very explosive mixture. An open flame 
brought near a battery on charge or freshly charged, will prob¬ 
ably produce an explosion resulting in broken jars and jar 
covers. 

(b) An open circuit produced inside a cell on charge in the 
manner described on page 117 under the heading “Open Cir¬ 
cuits,” will cause a spark at the instant the circuit is broken, 
with the same result as bringing a flame near the battery. 

(c) The small holes in the vents must be kept free for the 
escape of the gases. These holes are usually sealed in batteries 
shipped dry, to keep air out of the cells. The seals must be re¬ 
moved when the battery is prepared for service. If the vents 
remain plugged, the pressure of the gases formed during charge 
will finally burst covers of jars. 

BATTERY CASE TROUBLE. 

1. Ends Bulged Out, This is always an indication of a bat¬ 
tery which has been frozen. Whether the case can be repaired 
depends on the extent of the bulging. This can best be de¬ 
termined by the repairman. 

2. Rotted. If the case is rotted around the top, it is evidence 
that: (a) Too much water was added, with subsequent over¬ 
flowing when electrolyte warmed up during charge, (b) The 
tops were poorly sealed, resulting in leaks between the covers 
and the jars, (c) Battery has not been fastened down properly, 
and acid has been thrown out of the jars by the jolting of the 
car on the road, (d) The vent plugs have not been turned 
down tightly, (e) Electrolyte has been spilled in measuring 
specific gravity. 

If the case is rotted around the lower part it indicates that the 
jars are cracked or contain holes. Instructions for making re¬ 
pairs on battery cases are given on page 287. 


114 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


TROUBLE WITH CONNECTORS AND TERMINALS. 

1. Corroded. This is a very common trouble, and one which 
should be guarded against very carefully. Corrosion is in¬ 
dicated by the presence of a grayish or greenish substance on 
the battery terminals, especially the positive. It is due to sev¬ 
eral causes: 

(a) Too much water added to cells. The electrolyte expands 
on charge and hows out on the top of the battery. 

(b) Battery not fastened firmly. The jolting caused by the 
motion of the car on the road will cause electrolyte to be thrown 
out of the vent caps. 

(c) Battery poorly sealed. The electrolyte will be thrown out 
on the cover by the motion of the car through the leaks which 
result from poor sealing. 

(d) Vent caps loose. This also allows electrolyte to be thrown 
out on the battery top. 

(e) Electrolyte spilled on top of battery in measuring specific 
gravity. 

(f) Battery cables damaged, or loose. The cables attached 
to the battery terminals are connected to lugs which are heavily 
coated with lead. The cables are insulated with rubber, upon 
which sulphuric acid has no effect. Care should be taken that 
the lead coating is not worn off, and that the rubber insulation is 
not broken or cut so as to allow eletrolyte, which is spilled on 
the battery top as explained in (a), (b), (c), (d) and (e), to 
reach the bare copper conductors of the cable. The terminal parts 
are always so made that when the connections are kept tight 
no acid can come into contact with anything but lead and rubber, 
neither of which is attacked by sulphuric acid. 

(g) Attaching wires directly to battery terminals. There 
should be no exposed metal except lead at the battery terminals. 
No wires of any other metal should be attached to the battery 
terminals. Such wires should be connected to the rubber covered 
cables which are attached to battery, and the connections should 
be made far enough away from the battery to prevent electrolyte 
from coming in contact with the wire. Car manufacturers gen¬ 
erally observe this rule, but the car owner may, through ignor- 


STORAGE BATTERY TROUBLES 


115 


ance, attach copper wires directly to the battery terminals. The 
positive terminal is especially subject to corrosion, and should 
be a\ at died carefully, lo avoid corrosion it is necessary simply 
1o keep the top of the battery dry, keep the terminal connections 
tight, and coat the terminals with vaseline. The rule about con¬ 
necting wires directly to the battery terminals must of course be 
observed also. 

2. Loose. Loose terminal connections cause a loss of enertrv 
due to their resistance, and all such connections must be well 
made. If the cell-to-cell connectors are loose, it is due to a poor 
job of lead burning. This is also true of burned on terminals, 
and in either case, the connections should be drilled off, cleaned 
and re-burned. 

Terminals sometimes become so badly corroded that it is im¬ 
possible to disconnect the cables from the battery. Instructions 
for such cases are given on Page 225. 

ELECTROLYTE TROUBLES. 

(1) Low Gravity. See page 236. 

(2) High Gravity. See page 239. 

(3) Low Level. See page 239. 

(4) High Level. This condition is due to the addition of too 
much water. It leads to corrosion as already explained. It also 
causes a loss of acid. The Electrolyte which overflows is lost, 
this of course, causing a loss of acid. The condition of Low 
Gravity then arises, as described on page 236. 

(5) Specific gravity will not rise during charge. See page 240 

(6) Milky Electrolyte, (a) Lead Sulphate in Battery Acid. 
It sometimes happens that sulphuric acid contains some lead sul¬ 
phate in solution. This sulphate is precipitated when water is 
added to the acid in mixing electrolyte, and gives the electrolyte 
a milky appearance. This sulphate settles if the electrolyte is 
allowed to stand. 

(b) Gassing. The most common cause of the milky appear¬ 
ance, however, is the presence of minute gas bubbles in large 
quantities. These may be the result of local action caused by 
the presence of metallic impurities in the battery. The local ac- 


116 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


tion will stop when the battery is put on charge, but will begin 
as soon as the battery is taken off charge. The impurities are 
gradually covered by lead or lead sulphate, and the local action 
is thus stopped. 

Excessive gassing in a cell which contains no impurities may 
also cause the electrolyte to have a milky appearance. The gas 
bubbles are verv numerous and make the electrolvte look milky 
white. 

(7) Foaming. If the electrolyte foams, and very large bubbles 
collect on top, it is probably due to acetic acid from improperly 
treated separators. If a battery on the charging bench foams in 
this manner, and if the bubbles, instead of bursting, rise through 
the vent hole and spread over the top of the battery, it is safe 
to assume that acetic acid is present. Such a battery should be 
opened for inspection, as acetic acid attacks lead vigorously and 
dissolves it. The action is most severe on the plate lugs which 
connect the plates to the plate straps. These lugs are eaten away 
rapidly by the acetic acid and the plates are thus removed from 
the straps. If the lugs or the strap have not been injured to any 
considerable extent when the inspection is made, the plates 
should be washed to remove the acetic acid, and new separators 
should then be used. 


GENERAL TROUBLES. 

Open Circuits. 

1. Poor Burning of Connectors to Posts. Unless a good burned 
connection is made between each connector and post, the joint- 
may melt under high discharge rates, or it may offer so much re¬ 
sistance to the passage of current that the starting motor cannot 
operate. Sometimes the post is not burned to the connector at 
all, although the latter is well finished off on top. Under such 
conditions the battery may operate for a time, due to frictional 
contact between the post and connector, but the parts may become 
oxidized or sulphated, or vibration may break the connection, 
preventing the flow of current. Frequently, however, the circuit 
is not completely open, and the poor connection acts simply as a 


STORAGE BATTERY TROUBLES 


117 


liig'li resistance. Under such a condition the contsant current gen¬ 
erator automatically increases its voltage, and forces charging 
current through the battery, although the latter, having only a 
low fixed voltage, cannot force out the heavy current required 
for starting the engine. 

2. Terminals Broken Off. Inexperienced workmen frequently 
pound on the terminals to loosen the cable lugs, or pry on them 
sufficiently to break off the battery terminals. If the terminals 
and lugs are kept properly greased, they will come apart easily. 
A pair of terminal tongs is a very convenient tool. These exert 
a pressure between the terminal and the head of the terminal 
screw, which is first unscrewed a few turns. 

3. Acid on Soldered Joints. Amateurs sometimes attempt to 
make connections by the use of a soldering iron and solder. 
Solder is readily dissolved by acid, not only spoiling the joint, 
but endangering the plates if any gets into the cells. Solder 
must never be used on a battery except for sweating the cables 
into the cable lugs, and the joint even here must be well pro¬ 
tected by rubber tape. 

4. Defective Posts. Posts withdrawn from the post mould be¬ 
fore they are cool enough may develop cracks. Bubbles some¬ 
times occur in the posts. Either trouble may reduce the current 
carrying capacity or mechanical strength of the post and result 
in a broken or burned-out spot. This is a defect which should not 
be found with proper inspection at the factory. 

5. Plates Improperly Burned. As previously explained, this 
is not likely to cause immediate trouble, but by imposing extra 
work on the balance of the plates, causes them to wear out quickly. 

Battery Discharged. 

1. Due to excessive use of starting motor and lamps. 

2. Failure of generator. 

3. Defective switches, which by being grounded, or failing 
to open allow battery to discharge. 

4. Defective cutout, allowing battery to discharge into gen¬ 
erator. 

5. Addition of accessories, or use of too large lamps. 


118 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 

6. Defective wiring, causing grounds or short-circuits. 

7. Insufficient charging rate. 

8. Charged battery allowed to remain idle. 

Dead Cells. 

1. Worn out Separators. The duties of separators are to pre¬ 
vent the plates from touching each other, and to prevent “tree¬ 
ing,” or growth of active material from the negative to the posi¬ 
tive plates. If they fail to perform these duties, the battery 
will become short-circuited internally. The separator troubles 
described on page 111 eventually lead to short-circuited cells. 

2. Foreign Material. If a piece of lead falls between plates 
so as to later punch a hole through a separator, a short circuit 
will result. Great care should be taken in burning plates on the 
straps to prevent lead from running down between plates, as this 
lead will cause a short circuit by punching through the separator. 

3. Accumulation of Sediment. The active material which 
drops from the plates accumulates in the “mud” space in the 
bottom of the jar. If this rises until it touches the bottom of 
the plates, a short-circuit results. Usually it is advisable to re¬ 
new the positives in a battery which has become short-circuited 
by sediment, since the sediment comes largely from the positives, 
and if they have lost enough active material to completely fill 
the sediment space, they are no longer fit for use. 

Battery Will Not Charge. 

This is due to a high resistance preventing the flow of charg¬ 
ing current. 

1. Sulphated Plates. Plates which are badly sulphated offer 
a high resistance to the passage of a charging current. The 
sulphate is a poor conductor, is tough, and insoluble. 

2. Terminals or Top Connectors. If these are loose, corroded, 
or dirty, the battery cannot charge. 

3. Open Circuit. Should all the plates of a group be broken, 
or otherwise disconnected from the plate strap, no charging cur¬ 
rent can pass. Acetic acid from improperly treated separators 
will quickly dissolve all the plate lugs. 


STORAGE BATTERY TROUBLES 


119 


Loss of Capacity. 

A battery loses capacity clue to a number of causes. Some of 
them have already been considered. 

1. Impurities in the Electrolyte. These have already been 
discussed. 

2. Sulphation. This also has been described. 

3. Loose Active Material, as already described. The active 
materials which are not in contact with the grids cannot do their 
work. 

4. Incorrect Proportions of Acid and Water in the Electrolyte. 

In order that all the active material in the plates may be utilized, 
there must be enough acid in the electrolyte, and also enough 
water. If there is not enough acid, the battery will lack capacity. 
If there is too much acid, the acid when the battery is fully 
charged will be strong enough to attack and seriously damage 
the plates and separators. Insufficient amount of acid may be 
due to replacing, with water, electrolyte which has been spilled 
or which has leaked out. Too much acid results from an in¬ 
correct proportion of acid and water in the electrolyte, or from 
adding acid instead of water to bring the electrolyte above the 
plate tops, and causes sulphation, corroded plates, and car¬ 
bonized separators. 

The remedy for incorrect proportions of acid and water in the 
electrolyte is to give the battery a full charge and adjust the 
gravity by drawing off some of the electrolyte and replacing it 
with water, or 1.400 specific gravity electrolyte, as the case 
may be. 

5. Separators Clogged. The pores of the separators may be¬ 
come filled with sulphate or impurities, and thus prevent the 
proper circulation of the electrolyte. New separators must be 
put in. 

6. Shedding. The capacity of a battery naturally decreases 
as the active material falls from the plates, since the amount of 
active material which can take part in the chemical actions that 
enable us to draw current from the battery decreases. 

7. Low Level of Electrolyte. Aside from the loss of capacity 
which results from the sulphation caused by low electrolyte, there 


120 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


is a loss of capacity caused by the decrease in the useful plate 
area when the electrolyte is below the tops of the plates. Only 
that part of the plate surface which is below the electrolyte does 
any work, and the area of this part gradually decreases as the 
electrolyte falls. 

8. Corroded Grids. Caused by nonuniform mixture in alloy 
of which grids are made, by the chemical action resulting from 
electrolytic decomposition of highly dilute acid in the pores of 
the active material, and by the presence of lead dissolving acids 
or their compounds in the electrolyte. The first condition is hope¬ 
less. The second is also, as it occurs in every cell if the discharge 
is carried too far, or if the plates have a thick layer of active 
material when the rate of discharge is high. If the electrolyte 
contains impurities which attack the lead, the remedy is to pour 
out the old electrolyte, and put in fresh, which is known to be 
chemically pure. 

Corrosion is also the natural result of the action of the acid on 
the plates, and is the natural depreciation occurring in the plates. 
This can be retarded by keeping the specific gravity of the elec¬ 
trolyte slightly below that for full charge. This corrosion tends 
to take place most rapidly at the surface of the electrolyte, and 
the damage at this point can be lessened by keeping the plates 
covered with electrolyte, and making the terminal bars and lugs 
extra large in cross section. 

9. Reversal of Plates. If one cell of a battery has an internal 
short circuit, or some other defect which causes it to lose its 
charge, the cell will be discharged before the others which are in 
series with it, and when this cell is completely discharged, the 
other cells will send a current through, it in a discharge direction, 
and the negative plates will have a coating of lead peroxide 
formed on them, and will assume the characteristics of positive 
plates. The positives will be reversed also. 

This reversal may also be the result of charging a battery in 
the wrong direction, on account of reversed charging connections. 
The remedy for reversed plates, provided they have not become 
disintegrated, is given on page 109. 

10. Effect of Age. A battery gradually loses capacity due to 
its age. This effect is independent of the loss of capacity due to 


STORAGE BATTERY TROUBLES 


121 


the other causes. Positive plates gradually lose capacity because 
the paste loses its coherence, and crumbles like a powder. In 
the negatives, the size of the grain increases its size, giving the 
plates a granulated appearance. Such plates are called “ granu¬ 
lated negatives. The spongy lead cements together and loses 
porosity. 


Loss of Charge in An Idle Battery. 

It has been found that if a charged battery is allowed to stand 
idle, and is not charged, and no current is drawn from it, the 
battery will gradually become completely discharged and must 
be given an occasional “freshening” charge. 

Now, as we have learned, when a battery discharges lead sul¬ 
phate forms on each plate, and acid is taken from the electrolyte 
as the sulphate forms. In our idle battery, therefore, such actions 
must be taking place. The only difference in this case is that the 
sulphate forms without any current passing through the battery. 
The actions at the lead and lead peroxide must, therefore, be 
independent of each other. At the lead peroxide plate we have 
lead peroxide paste, lead grid, and sulphuric acid. These are all 
the elements needed to produce a storage battery, and as the 
lead peroxide and the lead are touching each other, each lead 
peroxide plate really forms a short circuited cell. Why does this 
plate not discharge itself completely 1 ? A certain amount of dis¬ 
charge does take place, and results in a layer of lead sulphate 
forming between the lead peroxide and the grid. The sulphate, 
having high resistance then protects the lead grid and prevents 
anv further action. This discharge action therefore does not con- 
tinue, but causes a loss of a certain part of the charge. 

At the negative plate, we have pure spongy lead, and the grid. 
This grid is not composed entirely of lead, but contains a per¬ 
centage of antimony, a metal which makes the grid harder and 
stronger. There is but very little difference of potential be¬ 
tween the spongy lead and the grid. A small amount of lead 
sulphate does form, however, on the surface of the negative plate. 
This is due to the action between the spongy lead and the elec¬ 
trolyte. 


122 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


Some of the lead combines with the acid to form lead sul¬ 
phate, but after a small amount has been formed the action is 
stopped because a balanced chemical condition is soon obtained. 

Thus only a small amount of lead sulphate is formed at each 
plate, and the cell thereby loses only a small part of its charge. 
In a perfectly constructed battery the discharge would then 
stop. The only further action which would take place would 
be the slow evaporation of the water of the electrolyte. As the 
level of the electrolyte dropped below the tops of the plates, 
sulphation would take place on the dry parts of the plate above 
the electrolyte. The loss of charge which actually occurs in an 
idle charged battery is greater than that due to the formation 
of the small amounts of sulphate on the plates, and the evapora¬ 
tion of the water from the electrolyte. 

Does an idle cell discharge itself by decomposing its electro¬ 
lyte? We have a difference of potential of about two volts be¬ 
tween the lead and lead peroxide plate. Why is the electrolyte 
not decomposed by this difference? At first it might seem that 
the water and acid should be separated into its parts, and hydro¬ 
gen liberated at the negative plate. As a matter of fact, very 
little hydrogen gas is set free in an idle charged cell because to 
do so would require a voltage of about 2.5. At two volts, so 
little gas is formed that the loss of charge due to it may be 
neglected entirely. 

The greatest loss of charge in an idle battery results from 
conditions arising from the processes of manufacture, internal 
troubles, and leakage between terminals. The grids of a cell 
are an alloy of lead and antimony. These are mixed while in a 
molten condition, and are then allowed to cool. If the cooling 
is not done properly, or if a poor grade of antimony is used, the 
resulting grid is not a uniform mixture of antimony and lead. 
There will be areas of pure lead, with an air hole here and there. 
The lack of uniformity in the grid material results in a local dis¬ 
charge in the grid. This causes some loss of charge. 

If the active material completely fills the spaces between the 
grids, the acid formed as the cell is charged may not be able to 
diffuse into the main body of the electrolyte, but forms a small 
pocket of acid in the plate. This acid will cause a discharge 


STORAGE BATTERY TROUBLES 


123 


between paste and grid and a coating of lead sulphate forms on 
the grid, resulting in a certain loss of charge. 

In general any metallic impurity in a cell will cause a loss at 
the lead plate. When a cell is charged, the current causes the 
metals to deposit on the lead plate. Local cells are formed by 
the metallic impurity, the lead plate, and the acid, and these tiny 
cells will discharge completely, causing a loss of charge. This 
has already been described on page 102. 

Another cause of loss of charge in an idle cell is leakage of 
current between the terminals on the outside of the battery. Dur¬ 
ing charge, the bubbles of gas which escape from the electrolyte 
carry with them minute quantities of acid which may deposit on 
the top of the battery and gradually form a thin conducting 
layer of electrolyte through which a current will flow from the 
positive to the negative terminals. This danger may be avoided 
by carefully wiping any moisture from the battery. Condensa¬ 
tion of moisture from the air, on the top or sides and bottom of 
a battery will cause the same condition. This will be especially 
noticeable if a battery is kept in a damp place. 

The tendency for crystals of lead to “tree” over from the 
negative to the positive plates is well known. An idle battery is 
one in which this action tends to take place. Treeing will occur 
through the pores of the separators and as there is no flow of 
electrolyte in or out of the plates, the lead “trees” are not dis¬ 
turbed in their growth. A freshening charge causes this flow 
to take place, and break up the “trees” which would otherwise 
gradually short circuit the cells. 






Section II 


How to Repair Batteries 

















/ 









CHAPTER 13. 



Fig. 43. Typical Work Room Showing Bench About 34 Inches High, Tanks 
of Hydrogen and Oxygen for Lead Burning, Hot Plates for Melting Sealing 
Compound and Hand'Drill-Press for Drilling off Top Connectors 

127 


THE WORK SHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. 


The degree of success which the battery repairman attains de¬ 
pends to a considerable extent upon the workshop in which the 
batteries are handled. It is, of course, desirable to be able to 
build your shop, and thus be able to have everything arranged 
as you wish. If you must work in a rented shop, select a place 
which has plenty of light and ventilation. The ventilation is 
especially important on account of the acid fumes from the bat¬ 
teries. A shop which receives most of its light from the north is 
the best, as the light is then more uniform during the day, and 
the direct rays of the sun are avoided. Fig. 43 shows a light, 















128 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


well ventilated workroom. At least 600 square feet of floor sur¬ 
face are needed, a shop 25 feet square being well suited for a 
small repair business. 

The floor should be in good condition, since acid rots the 
wood and if the floor is already in a poor condition, the acid will 
soon eat through it. A tile floor, as described below, is best. A 
wooden floor should be thoroughly scrubbed, using water to which 
washing soda has been added. Then give the floor a coat of 
asphaltum paint, which should be applied very hot so as to flow 
into all cracks in the wood. When the first coat is dry, several 
more coats should be given. Whenever you make a solution of 
soda for any purpose, do not throw it away when you are through 
with it. Instead, pour it on the floor where the acid is most likely 
to be spilled. This will neutralize the acid and prevent it from 
rotting the wood. 

If you can afford to build a shop, make it of brick, with a floor 
of vitrified brick, or of tile which is not less than two inches 
thick, and is preferably eight inches square. The seams should 
not be less than one-eiglith inch wide, and not wider than one- 
fourth. They should be grouted with asphaltum, melted as hot 
and as thin as possible, (not less than 450° F). This should be 
poured in the seams. The brick or tile should be heated near the 
seams before pouring in the asphaltum. When all the seams have 
been filled, heat them again. After the second heating, the 
asphaltum may shrink, and it may be necessary to pour in more 
asphaltum. 

If possible, the floor should slope evenly from one end of the 
room to the other, with a drop of about one inch to the foot. A 
lead drainage trough and pipe at the lower end of the shop will 
carry off the acid and electrotyte. 

It is a good plan to give all work benches' and storage racks 
and shelves at least two coatings of hot asphaltum paint. This 
will prevent rotting by the acid. 


Shop Equipment. 

The exact equipment of any shop will be governed by the 
size and shape of the shop, and the amount of money available 
for fitting it up. Six things are absolutely essential. These are : 


THE WORK SHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 129 


1. Work benches with vise. 

2. Lead burning outfit. 

3. Sink with water supply. 

4. Charging bench and equipment. 

5. Shelving, for storing boxes, plates, jars, tools, burning lead, 
etc. 

6. Stove for heating sealing compound. 



Fig. 44. Suggested Layout For a Small Battery Repair Shop 


The arrangement of these parts will depend upon the size and 
shape of the workshop, and the ideas of the repairman, b ig. 
44 shows a convenient design for a shop 25 feet square, and 
Fig. 45 is from an actual photograph of an up-to-date, pro¬ 
gressive small repairshop. Near the door is the desk where the 























































330 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


book-keeping is done. A table is placed next to it for catalogues, 
magazines, etc., and for eating lunch. 

The work bench extends across one end of the shop, and is six¬ 
teen feet long. At one end is a sink, in which the sediment may 
be washed out of the jars. Fig. 46 is a photograph of the sink. 
The bent pipe extending upward is perforated with a number of 
1-16 inch holes. In cleaning out jars, the battery box is inverted 
over the pipe. The water supply is controlled by a foot operated 



Fig. 45. Corner of Workshop. Showing Lead Burning Outfit, Workbench, 

and Vises 

valve, so that the box may be held in both hands while it is 
washed. At the other end of the bench is the lead burning 
outfit, the use of which is explained later. The bench should be 
made of lumber two inches thick, and given several coats of hot 
asphaltum paint. 


Special Work Bench. 

The cross-shaped, double work bench shown at the left in Fig. 
44 is of a special design, and requires a detailed explanation. 
The bench is to be used by two men, one sitting at each end, and 






THE WORK SHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 131 


with the following explanation, you should have little difficulty 
in constructing one. Fig. 47 is a photograph of this bench, as 
it has been used for several years. Fig. 48 is a drawing giving 
dimensions. Give the various parts of the bench a good coat 
of asphaltum paint, not too thick, as you assemble it so as to 



Fig. 46. Sink with Faucet, and Extra Swinging Arm Pipe for Wash¬ 
ing Out Jars. Four Inch Paint Brush for Washing Battery Cases 

cover the surfaces which will later be covered by other parts 
and thus be impossible to paint. When completed, give the bench 
a second coat of asphaltum, and let it dry thoroughly before 
using. 

The bench should have a permanent location so that gas, if 
available, can be piped to it. It is a good plan to have it near 
a wall or partition where each workman may have, within easy 


















132 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


reach, shelves on which are kept labeled boxes with parts for 
different batteries in process of repair and rebuilding. You will 
note that there are in middle of bench, directly in front of each 
workman, elevated shelves, one for each workman, forming two 
pockets for tools, so that each may keep his own tools separate, 
with very little chance of becoming mixed. On the edge of 
shelves you can put several nails and hang any special wrenches, 
such as Exide lead nut wrench, monkey wrench, a pair of snips 



a lead funnel, and a hammer or two, (bore holes in handles so 
you can hang up). In each workman’s separate pocket there 
should be a pair of rubber gloves, four screw drivers, four putty 
knives, % and V 2 inch chisels, 2 pairs bent nosed pliers, 2 or 3 
pairs different sizes of gas pliers, a good knife, a wire brush, a 
lead pencil, some good rags and an assortment of pieces of boards 
inches, and just long enough to go in between the han¬ 
dles of the different standard makes of batteries. These should 
be oiled, or a thin film of vaseline spread over them. They are 
















THE WORK SHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 133 


used to even up the separators in assembling, and also in press¬ 
ing down the top covers when finishing rebuilding of batteries, 
as described later. You should also have one piece l%x% inch 
and one piece 1 V 2 x1 /4 inch, each 8 or 10 inches long. 

You will find the tool scraper (shown at J in Eig. 48) to the 
right of each workman very convenient for removing the com- 



STOCK SPECIFICATION 

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PIECES 

RE<?'R 

CUTTING SIZES 

MATEKI/U 

A" 

2 

| J X 12'- I2"lON<5 

OAK WOOC 

'e>' 

2 

IX I2'-3S’ ' 

PINEWOOD 

"c" 

2 

1 Ax 5-44 - 


"c>' 

A 

|'XI2"-I3* * 


"E" 

2 

1X5-52' ' 

* 

F 

1 

ftxzjf-io/z - 

- 

<3 ' 

2 

%xi o'li~\3'/4’ 

* 

H 

4 

^'X2j£-I4' • 

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stLstrif 







Fig. 48 


pound sticking to your tools. Always have a box under it to 
catch the compound. When a battery is on the bench and the 
workman sitting up to it, straddling battery and bench, he is 

in the best possible position to open it. 

A gas, gasoline, or oil pilot light should be mounted on one side 
of the two uprights. By using two screw drivers or putty knives 
in opening a battery, one can be warming in the flame, while 
you are using the other. 
























































































134 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


Shelving'. 

The dimensions of the shelving depend upon the nature of the 
material to be stored. For miscellaneous parts, such as empty 
jars, empty boxes, groups of plates, tools, separators, cans of 
grease, bottles of ammonia, or soda solution, and so on, one 
inch stock is strong enough. For storing completely assembled 
batteries, two inch lumber should be used as they must carry 



Fig. 49. Typical Stockroom, Showing Heavy Shelving Neces 9 ary For 

Storing Batteries 

loads of hundreds of pounds. The vertical distance between 
shelves should be two feet if there is sufficient space, in order to 
be able to take specific gravity readings without removing the 
batteries from the shelves. A space should be left between 
batteries for ventilation. Fig. 49 shows the type of shelving re¬ 
quired. 

Concerning Light. 

Light is essential to good work, so you must have plenty of 
good light and at the right place. For a light that is needed 





THE WORK SHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 135 


from one end of a bench to the other, to look into each individual 
battery, or to take the reading of each individual battery, there is 
nothing better than a 60 Watt tungsten lamp under a good metal 
shade, dark on outside and white on inside. 

A unique way to hang a light and have it movable from one 
end of the bench to the other, is to stretch a wire from one end 
of the bench to the other. Steel or copper about 10 or 12 B & S 
gauge may be used. Stretch it about four or five feet above top 
of bench directly above where the light is most needed. If 
you have a double charging bench, stretch the wire directly above 
middle of bench. Before fastening wire to support, slip an old 
fashioned porcelain knob (or an ordinary thread spool) on the 
wire. The drop cord is to be tied to this knob or spool at what¬ 
ever height you wish the light to hang (a few inches lower than 
your head is the right height). 

Put the ceiling rosette above center of bench; cut your drop 
cord long enough so that you can slide the light from one end 
of bench to the other after being attached to rosette. Put 
vaseline on the wire so the fumes of gas will not corrode it. This 
will also make the spool slide easily. This gives you a movable, 
flexible light, with which you will reach any battery on bench 
for inspection. The work bench light can be rigged up the same 
way and a 75 or 100 Watt nitrogen lamp used. 

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT. 

Do not attempt to handle battery repair work until you have 
provided yourself with the proper tools. Good tools are the sign 
of a good workman. The leading battery companies have made 
up lists of tools which they recommend as essential. These lists 
are given below: 

Tools recommended and sold by the U. S. Light and Heat Cor¬ 
poration of Niagara Palls, New York: 

(1) . Gas still for distilling water, in capacities of %, 1, and 

5 gallons per hour. 

(2) . Plate burning rack for holding connecting strap and plates 
while burning. 

(3) . A plumber’s or tinner’s triangular scraper for scraping 
posts, lugs on plates, etc. 




136 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


(4) . Steel wire brush, for cleaning terminals, etc. 

(5) . Putty knife for removing sealing compound. 

(6) . Two combination pliers for pulling out elements, etc. 

(7) . One pair long flat nosed pliers for pulling out jars and 
separators. 

(8) . One pair end cutting nippers for cutting connectors, posts, 
plate lugs, etc. 

(9) . One coarse bastard file for cleaning lead parts, and a file 
brush. 

(10) . One ladle for sealing compound. 

(11) . One Syringe hydrometer for measuring specific gravity, 
drawing off electrolyte, or adding distilled water. 

(12) . One lead lined acid box, 24 inches by 36 inches by 24 
inches high, for storing acid or separators. 

(13) . Bottle of 1.300 Specific gravity electrolyte. 

(14) . Bottle of 1.400 Specific gravity electrolyte. 

(15) . Rods of lead-antimony for burning plates to straps. 

(16) . Rods of pure lead for burning in top connectors. 

(17) . Sealing compound. 

(18) . Complete set terminal moulds for building up straight 
and tapered posts for clamp terminals. 

(19) . Post strap building mo'uld. 

(20) . Set pressure terminal tongs for removing taper lugs 
from battery terminals. 

(21) . Set battery terminal reamers. 

The above list of tools may be obtained by communicating with 
the U. S. L. factory at Niagara Falls, New York. 

The next list is that recommended by the Gould Battery Com¬ 
pany : 

(1) . 1 pair rubber gloves, to protect the hands from acid. 

(2) . 1 7-inch end cutting nippers, for cutting connectors, posts, 
plate lugs, etc. 

(3) . 2 combination pliers, for pulling elements, etc. 

(4) . 1 triangular lead scraper, for scraping burning lead, 
plate lugs, etc. 

(5) . 1 putty knife for removing sealing compound. 

(6) . 1 44-inch wood chisel for removing sealing compound. 


THE WORK SHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 137 

(7) . 1 5-inch screw driver for removing sealing compound and 
covers. 

(8) . 1 single end wrench for removing taper terminals. 

(H) . 1 10-inch file and handle, for filing plate lugs, lead, etc. 

(10) . 1 steel wire brush, for cleaning terminals, etc. 

(11) . 1 ball point hammer for general work. 

(12) . 1 10-inch ratchet brace, for drilling connecting links 
loose from posts. 

(13) . 1 %-inch bit stock drill for removing %-inch connect¬ 
ors. 

(14) . 1 %-inch bit stock drill for removing %-inch connect¬ 
ors. 

(15) . 1 center punch, for centering terminals to drill. 

(16) . 1 adjustable hack saw frame for general work. 

(17) . 3 hack saw blades, 8 inches, for the above. 

(18) . 1 iron ladle for pouring sealing compound. 

(19) . 1 pair blue glasses, for use when operating burning 
outfit. 

(20) . 1 soft rubber bulb syringe, for flushing and equalizing 

electrolvte. 

%/ 

(21) . 1 steel file brush for cleaning lead parts and file. 

*22). 1 burning rack for holding plates and connecting straps 
in place while burning. 

(23) . 1 hydrometer for mixing electrolyte. 

(24) . 1 thermometer to determine the temperature of the cell. 

(25) . 1 lead burning outfit. 

In addition to these tools and equipment recommended by the 
above manufacturers, the following will be found very useful: 

(I) . Gasoline torch. 

(2) . Two-way burner if natural or ordinary illuminating gas 
is used for lead burning. 

(3) . Screw drivers: 

Two with 10-inch blades. 

One with 8-inch blade ground rather narrow. 

One with small 6-incli blade. 

(4) . Several wood chisels, % to %-inch wide. 

(5) . Piece of 1-inch angle iron about 8 inches long to place 





138 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


on top edge of battery when prjdng off the covers with screw 
drivers. 

(6) . Several old stew pans to be used for boiling connectors in 
soda water to remove acid. 

(7) . Coffee pot for heating and pouring compound. 

(8) . A number of pieces of wood %-inch thick, l 1 /^ inches wide, 
and just long enough to fit between the handles of the various 
sized batteries. 

(9) . Metal stamps for stamping date, repairman’s initials, and 
“ + ” and “—•” or “P” and “N” on top connectors. 

(10) . Cans of asphaltum paint for painting battery boxes, 
work bench, etc. 

(11) . Plate press for forcing bulged active material back into 
the grids. (See Fig. 52.) 

(12) . Steam boiler and steaming box for softening sealing 
compound preparatory to opening battery. (See Fig. 51.) 

(13) . Moulds for making burning lead. (See Fig. 54.) 

(14) . Rheostat for heavy discharge tests. 

(15) . Cadmium test set. (See Figs. 89 and 90.) 

(16) . Universal plate burning rack. (See Fig. 56.) 

(17) . Battery turntable, to be used when painting battery, 
burning on the top connectors, pouring compound, etc. (See 
Fig. 53.) 

(18) . Two pairs bent nose pliers. 

(19) . A good pocket knife. 

(20) . Lead pencil, and chalk for marking batteries. 

(21) . Monkey wrench. 

(22) . Clean Rags. 

(23) . For convenience in keeping track of covers, vent plugs, 
top connectors, and terminals, you should procure a number of 
shallow boxes, as shown in Fig. 50. The name of owner of battery 
should be written on the end of the box. These boxes should 
be 12 inches long, 8 inches wide, and 4 inches deep. Gather up 
the lead drillings and put in a box procured for this purpose, 
about 9 inches by 14 inches by 6 inches in size. Fig. 50 shows 
both kinds of boxes. 

(24) . The large Exide vehicle hydrometer, type V-2A, is a 
most excellent one for general use. It has a round bulb, straight 






THE WORK SHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 139 


barrel, with projections on the enlarged portion of the float which 
make the latter keep an upright position when taking readings 
of specific gravity. This eliminates the annoying sticking of the 



Fig. 50 


float to the sides of the barrel. This hydrometer may be obtained 
from the Electric Storage Battery Co. 

The Battery Steamer. 

The Battery Steamer is an apparatus for softening the sealing 
compound on starting and lighting batteries, by means of steam, 
so that the battery may be opened easily and quickly, and with¬ 
out the use of a gas flame or a blow torch. Old jars may be 
steamed to soften the compound around them so that they may 
be removed; new jars may be softened before putting them in 
the case; covers may be made limp and pliable or compound 
sticking to them removed. It also takes the place of the still for 
making distilled water. It consists of four parts, as shown in 
Fig. 51: 

1. The Boiler, or “Steamer.” 

2. The Steaming Box. 

3. The Water Supply Tank. 

4. Condenser for obtaining distilled water. 

The Boiler is made of heavy, galvanized iron, and furnishes 
the steam. Water enters the boiler through a valve which is con¬ 
nected to the Water Supply tank by a rubber hose. The amount 















140 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


of water in the boiler is always the same, and is regulated by 
the motion of a float. When the water reaches a height of about 
2 inches, the float rises and closes the valve through which the 
water enters. The boiler is set on a gas, oil, electric, or gasoline 
stove, and because of the small amount of water in it, steam is 
produced very quickly. As the water boils away, the float lowers, 

opens the valve, and allows 



STEAM 



DISTI LLED 
WATER 


STEAMING TUBE 


more water to enter. Thus 
the level of the water is 
maintained constant as 
long as the supply in the 
tank lasts, and a continu¬ 
ous supply of steam is 
available within several 
minutes after the heat is 
applied to the boiler. For 
the average repair shop, 
the supply tank need not 
be filled but once a day, 
and the entire apparatus 
requires absolutely no at¬ 
tention after the stove is 
once lighted. 

The supply tank is also 
made of galvanized iron, 
and is connected to the 
boiler by means of a small 
hose. It is placed a foot 
or two higher than the boil¬ 
er so that the water w r ill 
flow into the latter by gravity. The steaming box is a stout 
wooden box, and is steam tight throughout. Steam is introduced 
through a connection in the cover by a steam hose which leads to 
the boiler. The box is made acid proof both inside and outside, so 
that it is not damaged if acid should be spilled on it accidentally. 
When the apparatus is assembled the box is placed on cleats 
several inches above the floor, to keep dry. 

When there are no batteries or parts to be steamed, the steam 
hose may be removed from the steaming box and attached to 



rig. 


51. Battery Steamer, with Con¬ 
denser for Obtaining Distilled Water. 
Water 












THE WORK SHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 141 


the Condenser. The cooling water is turned on and the steam 

is condensed into distilled water for use in filling batteries or 

making electrolyte. The fire may thus be kept under the boiler 

all day without any loss of steam. 

This Battery Steamer is also made without the Steaming Box. 

In place of this, six lengths of hose are attached to the boiler. 

The ends of these lengths of hose have fittings which are inserted 

in the filler tubes of the cells. In this wav steam is sent into 

&/ 

each cell, and the compound softened from underneath. Each 
hose may be shut off by a valve, so that any number may be 
used at one time. One six cell battery, or two three cell bat- 
teries, may be steamed at the same time. 


The Battery Plate Press. 


Every battery repair shop must have some means of pressing 
negative plates. In “pressing” plates, transite boards of the 
proper thickness are placed in each space between successive 
plates, with two boards on the outside of 
the end plates. The group of plates is 
then put under pressure to force the ac¬ 
tive materials back into the grid, flush 
with the surfaces of the grids. A large 
majority of negative plates require such 
pressing, as the most common fault with 
negative plates is the bulging out of the 
active material, thus causing a poor con¬ 
tact with the grids and consequently re¬ 
sulting in a loss of battery capacity. 

Never put negative plates into service 
if the active material is bulged. Such 
plates will never give good service, and 
will cause the battery to be sluggish. Al¬ 
ways press the active materials of such plates back into place. 
This will give the battery its approximate normal capacity, and 
will lengthen its life. 

Many repairmen press battery plates in an ordinary iron bench 
vise. This is hard on the vise, as acid drops from the plates on 



Fig. 52. Battery Plate 
Press 





















142 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


the iron parts of the vise, which in time become badly corroded 
and rusted. Such a vise is weak, breaks easily, and grows very 
stiff and hard to operate. The vise is therefore not well suited 
for this work because it is made of metal. 

The Battery Plate Press, Fig. 52, is especially designed for 
pressing battery plates, and is so constructed that there is no 
metallic part which can be reached by acid dripping from the 
plates. A trough is so arranged that the acid which is squeezed 
from the plates is carried off into a jar, and there is conse¬ 
quently no rotting of the floor beneath the press by dripping 
acid, and no wet, acid covered floor to ruin your shoes and 
clothes. 

A further advantage of the Battery Plate Press is that there 
are no iron parts near the plates from which bits of iron may 
fall on the plates. Iron is one of the greatest enemies of a stor¬ 
age battery. Fig. 119 shows plates which have been disinte¬ 
grated by impurities, probably iron, since iron is removed only 
with the greatest difficulty after it once comes in contact with a 
plate. Fig. 122 shows negatives which need pressing. 

Three groups of plates may be pressed at once in the Battery 
Plate Press, thus resulting in a considerable saving of time. 
Fig. 52 shows clearly the construction of this press. 

The Battery Turntable. 


Every repairman knows that the most disagreeable feature 
of a battery is its weight. No one moves a battery about unneces¬ 
sarily, especially when it is 
on the work bench. In 
cleaning, painting and re¬ 
pairing the case, however, 
it is necessary to get at all 
sides of the battery, and 
the battery must be turned 
around. 

To eliminate lifting the 
heavy battery as much as possible, every repairman should have 
a battery turntable, as shown in Fig. 53. The turntable is made 



Battery Turn Table 


THE WORK SHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 143 


of two pieces of well seasoned hardwood. The battery can be 
turned around easiH with one hand while cleaning, painting, or 
repairing the case. 

Every shop should have several of these convenient, time and 
labor saving turntables. 

The Burning Lead Mould. 

In every shop there is an accumulation of scrap lead from post 
drillings, old connecting straps, old plate straps, and old plates. 
These should be kept in a special box provided for that purpose, 
and when a sufficient amount has accumulated, the lead should 
be melted and run off into moulds for making burning lead. 

The Burning Lead Mould is designed to be used for this pur- 




Fjg. 54. Burning-Lead Moulds, and Burning Sticks Cast in Them 

pose. As shown in Fig. 54, the mould consists of a sheet iron form 
which has been pressed into six troughs or grooves into which 
the melted lead is poured. This sheet iron form is conveniently 
mounted on a block of wood which has a handle at one end, mak¬ 
ing it possible to hold the mould while hot without danger of 
being burned. A sheet of asbestos separates the iron form from 
the wood, thus protecting the wood from the heat of the melted 
lead. A hole is drilled in the end of the handle to permit the 
mould being hung on a nail when not in use. The grooves in the 
iron form will produce bars of burning lead 15 inches long, 5-16 
inch thick, % inch wide at the top, and % inch wide at the 
bottom. 

The advantage of this type of Burning Lead Mould over a 
cast iron mould is obvious. The form being made of sheet iron, 








144 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


heats up very quickly, and absorbs only a very small amount of 
heat from the melted lead. The cast-iron mould, on the other 
hand, takes so much heat from the melted lead that the latter 
cools very quickly, and is hard to handle. 

An iron pot that will hold at least ten pounds of molten lead 
should be used in melting up lead scraps for burning sticks. 

When the metal lias become soft enough to stir with a clean 
pine stick skim off the dross. Continue heating metal until 
slightly yellow on top. 

With a paddle or ladle drop in a cleaning compound of equal 
parts of powdered rosin, borax and flower of sulphur. Use a 
teaspoonful for a ten-pound melting and make sure the com¬ 
pound is perfectly dry. 

Stir a little and if metal is at proper heat there will be a 
flare, flash or a little burning. A sort of tin-foil popcorn effect 
will be noticed floating on top of the metal. Stir until this melts 
down. Have your ladle hot and skim off soft particles. 

The Battery Carrier. 

Carrying a battery by its two handles is awkward and tire¬ 
some. Some repairmen have a strap with hooks that lift the 
battery by means of its handles. The battery is then carried in 

one hand by means of the strap. A 
much more convenient and serviceable 
carrier has a strong maple handle to 
the ends of which are riveted two 
swinging steel links, as shown in Fig. 
55. At the lower end of each link is 
a strong swinging steel hook into 
which the handle on the battery fits. 
With this carrier any size battery may 
be carried, and two batteries may be 
carried with your arms straight down. 
This is an easy, comfortable manner 
of carrying batteries. Moreover, this carrier is very useful in 
lifting batteries out of cars, and replacing them on the car. 
Batteries that are placed so that the handles cannot be grasped 
with the hands or pliers, or batteries that have been frozen in 











Fig. 56 

connecting strap to which the post is attached. The plates are 
“burned” to the strap, and this must he done in such a manner 
that the plates are absolutely parallel, that the distance between 


THE WORK SHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 145 

place, or are wedged tightly in place from some other cause, 
may be handled easily with this carrier. 


Plate Burning Rack. 

The plates which compose a “group” are joined to the plate- 












146 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


plates is correct, and that the top surface of the strap is at 
right angles to the surface of the plates. These conditions are 
necessary in order that the positive and negative groups may 
mesh properly, that the complete element, consisting of the 
plates and separators may fit in the jar properly, and that the 
cell covers may fit over the posts easily. 

In order to secure these conditions, plates that are to be 
burned to the strap are set in a ‘ ‘ burning-rack, ” as shown in 
Figs. 56 and 57, which consists mainly of a base upon which the 
plates rest, and a slotted bar into which the lugs on the plates 

fit. The distance between successive 
slots is equal to the correct distance be¬ 
tween the plates of the group. An im¬ 
proved form of burning rack has a 
wooden base which has slots along one 
side. The plates are set into these slots 
and are thus held in the correct posi¬ 
tion at both top and bottom. Fig. 57 
shows a rack for use with % inch and 
7-64 inch plates. Fig. 56 shows a “Uni¬ 
versal” rack which may be used with 
both the % and 7-64 inch plates, and 
also many special plates. 

The guide-bar, or ‘ ‘ comb, ? ’ E, has slots along two sides, the 
base having corresponding slots, as shown. To accommodate 
different sized plates, the comb may be raised or lowered on the 
threaded uprights, and the uprights may be moved back and 
forth in two slots, one of which is shown at F. In using this 
rack, the plates are set in position, with their lower edges in the 
slots of the base, and their lugs in the slots in the comb. The 
plates are in this way held at opposite corners, and are abso¬ 
lutely straight and parallel. 

Special fittings are provided to simplify the work of burning. 
A bar, D, fits along the edge of the comb, and holds the lugs of 
the plates firmly in the slots. This bar is movable to any part 
of the comb, being held by two spring clips, C. Two bars, A 
and B, which are adjustable, make a form around the plate 



tnch Plates. 



the work SHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 147 


lugs which will prevent the hot lead from running off while burn¬ 
ing in the plates. 

Instructions for burning on plates are given on page 280. 

Charging Bench. 

The charging bench, as shown in Figs. 58 and 59, is designed 
to accommodate thirty-two batteries. The bench shown in Fig. 
58 has been in actual use for several years. The wiring shown 
in Fig. 60 is somewhat different from that of the bench shown 



Fig. 58. Double Charging Bench 


in the photograph, and is intended to furnish any current up to 
about 15 amperes. This type of bench has several advantages. 

1st. It occupies a minimum amount of floor space. 

2nd. Any number of batteries from 1 to 16 may be charged at 
the same time. Any battery may be disconnected from the charg¬ 
ing circuit by throwing up the knife switch for that battery. 
This will allow the other batteries to continue charging. 

3rd. To each switch are attached two 18-inch flexible, No. 8 
rubber covered wires, each of which has a hold-fast clip at the 
free end. These clips are snapped on the battery posts in an 
instant. This arrangement does away with the unsightly, time- 
consuming, inefficient method of tying batteries in series with any 
odd bits of wire which may be at hand, and after you once use 









148 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


this bench, you will never go back to the old, untidy, haphazard 
way of charging. 

4th. The elevated shelf extending down the center of the 




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bench is convenient for holding jars of distilled water, chalk for 
marking on the battery what is to be done with it, such as, 
4 D.C. for one dead cell, R.B. for rebuild, R.S. for reseal, etc. 
The hydrometer and water bottle may also be kept on the shelf. 














































































































































the work SHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 149 


A voltmeter for reading all voltages and for making cadmium 
tests may be mounted on a bracket and slid along to any desired 
place along the bench. 

Fig. 59 shows the various dimensions in sufficient detail to 
enable you to build the bench. Give each part a coat of asphal- 
tum paint before assembling the bench. When you have the bench 
assembled, give it two coats of hot asphaltum paint, being care¬ 
ful to thoroughly cover all parts. 



ON CHARGE 
Fig. 60 

Fig. 60 shows the wiring diagram for charging 16 batteries 
on a 110-volt circuit, using 15-100 watt lamps. These give one 
ampere each on 110 volts. Other sized lamps may be used, de¬ 
pending on the amount of current desired. The switches shown 
at A, B, C, D and E control the various groups of lamps. These 
may be the ordinary 10 ampere snap switches, or 10 ampere, 
single pole, single throw knife switches. Any current from 1 to 
15 amperes may be obtained in one ampere steps by turning 










































































150 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


on one or more of these switches as needed. The snap switch 
covers should be dipped in hot asphaltum paint, and the current 
carrying contacts covered with vaseline or grease. 

The board carrying the lamps should be mounted at one end 
of the bench, as shown in Figs. 58 and 59. It should be of one- 
inch stock, which has been given two coats of asphaltum paint. 
The porcelain sockets should be the “Edison cleat receptacle” 
or of similar design. These sockets have two screw holes in front 
for fastening to the board. They also have the binding posts in 
front. The wire connections for the whole board should be made 
on the front. For the connections to the sockets, use No. 12 
rubber covered wire. For all other connections, including the 
two feed wires to the battery switches on the bench, use No. 10 
rubber covered wire or cable. Keep all metallic parts covered 
with vaseline or grease to prevent corrosion from acid fumes. 

The double pole, double throw switch with fuse extensions 
should have a capacity of 25 amperes. This may be bought 
mounted on a slate base, or the various parts may be bought un¬ 
mounted, and then mounted directly on the board. Use 25 am¬ 
pere enclosed fuses or 25 ampere fuse links for this switch. The 
ammeter should be of the round, iron-clad switch board type, 
with a scale reading up to 25 amperes. The connections to this 
meter will probably have to be made in back of the board. 

Instead of lamps, you may use Ward Leonard Enameled Re¬ 
sistance Units, “EB” size. These are fitted with standard Edison 
bases for screwing into the lamp bases. These units are made in 
various capacities from 0.24 to 71 amperes each. The units listed 
as EB 90 will each give approximately one ampere, which is the 
current obtained through one 100 watt lamp. 

Any other form of Rheostat may be used instead of lamps. 
There are several types on the market which are suitable. 

If you can afford it, make two lamp and switch boards, putting 
one at each end of the bench, and connecting sixteen of the bat¬ 
tery switches to each board. Such a bench is more useful than 
one having only one lamp board and charging line. The reason 
is that batteries have a “starting” and a “finishing” rate of 
charge. That is, when these batteries are first put on charge, a 
rather high rate is used until the cells are gassing. Then the 


THE avork SHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 151 


current is lowered to the “finishing” rate. All batteries in the 
charging line will not begin to gas at the same time, because 
the internal condition varies among the batteries, and some will 
begin to gas much more quickly than others. Since the current 
must be reduced in the gassing cells, it is convenient to discon¬ 
nect these batteries from the line which is still carrying the 
“starting” current, and connect them to a second line carrying 
the “finishing” current. 

The pivot screws, switch blades, and switch contacts should 
be kept covered with vaseline to keep them from corroding 
from the acid fumes. For the same purpose, the hold-fast clips, 
after they are connected to the drop cord or flexible wire, should 
be dipped in hot thin asphaltum paint together with several 
inches of the drop cord to keep them from being attacked 
by acid. It is well to make up a few extra cords 18 inches 
or 2 feet long, with hold-fast clips at each end, as they are 
handy in connecting two or more batteries in series and in paral¬ 
leling batteries. It is well to make two charging benches while 
you are at it, instead of just one, and not mount the center shelf 
on one of them until really needed, but use the bench as a con¬ 
venient place to keep charged batteries. Always keep your bat¬ 
teries in an orderly way on this bench, and whenever you put 
one on it, be sure and have the positive end in so that the tag, 
which should always be attached to the negative handle, will hang 
out. Then you can readily find any battery you are looking for. 

In Figs. 61 and 62 are shown the wiring diagrams for other 
charging boards to be used on a 110 volt, direct current circuit. 

The connections shown may be made by any automobile repair¬ 
man or by any electrician. In Fig. 61 the necessary resistance 
is supplied by means of five banks of incandescent lamps, one 
bank carrying two bulbs, one carrying four and the remaining 
three carrying eight bulbs, each. At the left is shown a double 
pole, single throw knife switch of 25 amperes capacity to one side 
of which the supply line is attached. From one blade on the other 
side of the switch a line leads to one side of each of the lamp 
banks, and from the other blade a line leads through the ammeter 
to the bus-bar shown at K-L-M-N-O. From the other side of lamp 
bank number 1 a wire leads to the single pole, single throw, 25 




152 


THE AUTOMOBILE 


STORAGE BATTERY 


ampere knife switch which carries a 20 ampere fuse, this switch 
being marked E. From the bank of four lamps a line leads to a 
similar switch, F, and from the banks of eight lamps each, lines 
lead to the switches G, H and J. These lines may be connected 


IIDI/olis DC. 



Fig. 61. Charging Board Wiring, Using Lamps 


\ 


with each other by means of the single pole, single throw, 25 
ampere knife switches, A, B, C and D. Batteries to be charged 
are attached between the fused switches and the bus-bar at the 
points marked V, W, X, Y and Z. 

Carbon bulbs of 50 watt or 16 candle power capacity or 50 or 
60 watt tungstens should be used in each of the thirty lamp 

































































THE WORK SHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 153 


sockets. One bulb of this size allows a current flow of approx¬ 
imately V 2 ampere. With the arrangement shown, batteries of 
five different ampere-hour capacities may be charged at the same 
time, each capacity at its proper amperage. The various am¬ 
perages may be obtained according to the following instructions, 
all switches being left open except those you are directed to close. 
The main line switch should, of course, be closed for all the 
combinations given: 

1 ampere—Attach battery at V, close switch E. 

2 amperes—Attach battery at W, close switch F. 

3 amperes—Attach the battery at W and close switches A, E 

and F. 


4 amperes—Attach the battery at X, Y or Z and close switches 

G, II or J, respectively. 

5 amperes—Attach the battery at X and close switches A, B, E 

and G. 

6 amperes—Attach the battery at X and close switches B, F 

and G. 

7 amperes—Attach the battery at X and close switches, A, B, E, 

F and G. 

8 amperes—Attach the battery at Y and close switches C, G 


and II. 


9 amperes—Attach the battery at Y and close switches A, B, C, 
E, G and H. 

10 amperes—Attach the battery at Y and close switches B, C, F, 

G and TI. 

11 amperes—Attach the battery at Y and close switches A, P>, C, 

E, F, G and H. 

12 amperes—Attach the battery at Z and close switches C, D, G, 

II and J. 

13 amperes— Attach the battery at Z and close switches A, B, C, 


14 

15 


D, E, G, II and J. 

amperes—Attach the battery at, Z and close 
F, G, 11 and J. 

amperes—Attach the battery at Z and close 


switches B, 0, 
all switches. 



P 


With the positive and negative wires connected as shown, the 
ositive terminals of the battery should always be connected to 


154 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


the bus-bar and the negative terminals to the switch leads. In 
case it is desired to charge two or more batteries requiring the 
same current they should first be placed in series w r ith each 
other by connecting the positive terminal of one to the negative 
terminal of the next one, thus leaving one positive and one nega¬ 
tive terminal, the positive to be connected to the bus-bar and the 


O l/olfs OC 



Fig. 62. Charging Board Wiring, Using Resistance Coils 

negative to the switch lead. It will be seen that this method 
allows you to handle any number of batteries at any rate of 
charge from one to fifteen amperes. For connecting batteries in 
series in this way, make about two dozen lengths of No. 12 flexible 
lamp cord, each about one foot long, and having a “hold-fast” 
snap on terminal on each end. By using 100 watt bulbs the 
charging rate will be exactly doubled for each connection; that 































































































THE WORK SHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 155 


is, where one ampere was given two will be secured, where two 
amperes were given four will be secured, etc. In this case the 
switch and fuse capacities must be doubled. 

In Fig. 62 is illustrated a system similar to that described 
with the exception that coils of resistance wire are used in place 
of the lamp banks. The connections for various currents will be 
exactly the same as in the lamp system and the explanation using 
the reference letters will be the same in all particulars. The coil 
windings from number one to number five may be made up as 
follows: 

Coil 1—With German Silver wiring, 75 feet of 28 gauge. With 
Nichrome wiring, 30 feet of 28 gauge. 

Coil 2—With German Silver wiring, 38 feet of 28 gauge. With 
Nichrome wiring, 15 feet of 28 gauge. 

Coils 3, 4 and 5—With German Silver wiring, 19 feet of 28 gauge. 
With Nichrome wiring, 8 feet of 28 gauge. 

Charging Equipment. 

The apparatus to be employed in charging starting and light¬ 
ing batteries depends largely upon the source of electricity which 
is available. If a 110 volt, direct current supply is used, the 
simplest and cheapest apparatus is the charging bench with lamps 
for resistance, which has been described. Instead of the lamps, a 
motor-generator set may be used, which has a 110 volt, direct cur¬ 
rent motor, and a low voltage generator. Such an outfit is far 
more expensive than the lamps, however, and has no marked 
advantages to justify its installation. 

Where only alternating current is available, a rectifier or 
motor-generator must be installed. The rectifier changes the 
alternating current into a direct current. It may do this by 
means of a mechanical device, an electrolytic cell, a tube of mer¬ 
cury vapor, or some other arc rectifier. The motor-generator set 
consists of an alternating current motor driving a direct current 
generator. 

Motor-Generator Sets. 

In shops where only alternating current is available, a motor- 
generator set, consisting of an alternating current motor and a 


156 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


direct current motor is, on the whole, the most satisfactory charg¬ 
ing equipment. Such a set is extremely flexible as to voltage 
and current, is easily operated, is free from complications, and 
has no delicate parts to break or get out of order. 

Motor-Generator sets are made by a number of manufacturers. 
Accompanying these sets are complete instructions for installa¬ 
tion and operation, and we will not attempt to duplicate such in¬ 
structions in this book. Rules to assist in selecting the equipment 
will, however, be given. 

Except in ver}- large service stations, a 40 volt generator is 
preferable. It requires approximately 2.5 volts per cell to over¬ 
come the voltage of a battery in order to charge it, and hence 
the 40 volt generator has a voltage sufficient to charge 15 cells 
in series on one charging line. Five 6 volt batteries may there¬ 
fore be charged at one time on each line with a charging rate 
of 10 amperes. Each charging line will require 10 times 40, or 
400 watts. The size of the generator will depend on the number 
of charging lines desired. With 10 amperes charging current 
per line, the capacity of the generator required will be equal to 
400 watts multiplied by the number of charging lines. One 
charging line will need a 400 watt outfit. For two charg¬ 
ing lines 800 watts are required. Each charging line is gen¬ 
erally provided with a separate rheostat so that its charging 
rate may be adjusted to any desired value. This is an impor¬ 
tant feature, as it is wrong to charge all batteries at the same 
rate, and with separate rheostats the current on each line may 
be adjusted to the correct value for the batteries connected to 
that line. Any number of batteries up to the maximum may be 
charged on each line. 

In choosing a charging outfit, it is important not to get one 
which is too large, as the outfit will operate at a loss when run¬ 
ning under a minimum load. It is equally important not to get 
one which is too small, as it will not be able to take care of the 
batteries fast enough, and there will be a “waiting list” of bat¬ 
teries which cannot be charged until others are taken off charge. 
This will prevent the giving of good service. Buy an outfit that 
will care for your needs in the future, and also operate eco¬ 
nomically at the present time. Most men going into the battery 




THE WORK SHOP. 


GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 


157 


business make the mistake of underestimating their needs, and 
getting equipment which must soon be discarded because of lack 
of capacity. 

The manufacturers each make a number of sizes, and the one 
which will best fill the requirements should be chosen. In 
selecting an outfit the manufacturer’s distributor or dealer should 
be consulted in deciding what size outfit to obtain. The partic¬ 
ular outfit will depend on the voltage and frequency of the alter¬ 
nating current power circuits, the maximum charging current 




desired (10 amperes per line is ample), and the greatest number 
of batteries to be charged at one time. 

For the beginner, a 500 watt outfit is suitable. For the medium 
sized garage that specializes in battery charging, or for the 
small battery service station, a one kilowatt outfit is most sat¬ 
isfactory. Two charging panels are generally furnished with 
this outfit, and two charging lines may thus be used. This is an 
important feature, as one line may be used in starting a charge 
at 10 amperes, and the other for charging the batteries, that 
have begun to gas, at a reduced rate. Fig. 63 shows a four- 
circuit motor-generator set. Each circuit is provided with a 










158 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


separate rheostat and ammeter. The two terminals near the top 
of each rheostat are connected to one charging circuit. The two 
terminals near the lower end of each rheostat are connected to 
the generator. Fig. 64 shows how to wire one 5 battery charging 
circuit. This circuit is connected to the upper terminals of one 
of the rheostats. The circuits for the other rheostats are the 
same as shown in Fig. 64. Such a circuit may, of course, be 
used with other charging apparatus, using as many switches as 



Batteries on charge 
Fig. 64 


there are batteries. The switches shown make it possible to cut 
out one or more batteries and leave the others on charge. 

The 2 kilowatt set is suitable for a city garage, or a battery 
service station in a medium sized town. A beginner should not 
purchase this large set, unless the set can be operated at at least 
one-fourth capacity continuously. As a service station grows, a 
5 kilowatt set may be needed. The 1, 2 and 5 kilowatt sets 
should not be used on anything but city power lines. Single 
phase, or lighting lines are not satisfactory for handling these 
sets. 


Mercury Arc Rectifier. 

The operation of the mercury arc rectifier depends upon the 
fact that a tube containing mercury vapor under a low pressure 



















































































THE WORK SHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 159 


and provided with two electrodes, one of mercury and the other 
of some other conductor, offers a very high resistance to a cur¬ 
rent tending to pass through the tube from the mercury electrode 
to the other electrode, but offers a very low resistance to a cur¬ 
rent tending to pass through the tube in the opposite direction. 
The low resistance offered when the current tends to pass through 
the tube toward the mercury electrode depends upon the forma¬ 
tion of an arc in the tube by tilting it so the mercury bridges 
the gap between the two electrodes just for an instant. 

The absence of moving parts to get out of order is an advantage 
possessed by this rectifier over the motor-generator. The charg¬ 
ing current from the rectifier cannot, however, be reduced to as 
low a value as with the motor-generator, and this is a disadvan¬ 
tage. This rectifier is therefore more suitable for larger shops. 

Other Arc Rectifiers. 

All rectifiers using an arc operate on the principle that cur¬ 
rent can pass through the rectifier in one direction only, due to 
the great resistance offered to the flow of current in the reverse 
direction. It is, of course, not necessary to use mercury vapor 
for the arc. Some rectifiers operate on another principle. Exam¬ 
ples of such rectifiers are the Tungar, and the Rectigon. The 
Tungar rectifier uses a bulb which resembles an ordinary incan¬ 
descent lamp. In the bulb are two electrodes, one a round disk 
of graphite, and the other a low voltage tungsten filament which 
becomes heated by the current. The bulb contains the inert 
gas argon, and the combination of this gas and the heated tung¬ 
sten filament allow the current to flow in one direction only,—• 
from the graphite to the tungsten filament. 

The type of Tungar rectifier which is generally used is a 6 am¬ 
pere, 75 volt outfit. It will charge from one to ten 6 volt batteries 
at 6 amperes or less. The operation of this rectifier is very simple, 
and it possesses the advantage of automatically opening and clos¬ 
ing the charging current, thus preventing the batteries from 
discharging in case the line goes dead, and automatically begin¬ 
ning to charge again when the line is made alive. 


160 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


The Electrolytic Rectifier. 


fl.C SOURCE OF ENERGY 


r 3 ^ 


The action of the Electrolytic Rectifier is 
explained by the fact that certain electrolytic 
cells having electrodes of different metals will 
allow a current to pass through them in one 
direction only. Thus, if a plate of iron and 
a plate of aluminum be immersed in a solution 
of ammonium phosphate as shown diagrammat- 
ically in Fig. 65, and the two plates connected 
to a source of alternating current, the follow¬ 
ing results will be obtained. 

The alternating pressure between the termi¬ 
nals A and B tends to send a current through the cell first in one 
direction and then in the other direction, and if the resistance of 



Fig. 65 




the cell were independent of the direction of the current, there 
would be an alternating current produced and this current would 
be represented by a curve of the form shown in Fig. 66, with the 
distance of the curve above or below the line MN corresponding 
to the value of the current, the current being in one direction 
when it is above the line MN and in the opposite direction when 
it is below the line MN. There is, however, quite a high resistance 















































THE WORK SHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 161 


offered by the electrolytic cell when an attempt is made to send 
a current through it in a direction from the aluminum to the iron 
plate, and as a result of this high resistance to the current, there 
is in reality practically no current through the cell in one direc¬ 
tion as compared with the current through it in the opposite 
direction. This results in the current curve being of the general 
form shown by the full line in Fig. 67. The dotted line repre¬ 
sents the part of the current curve shown in Fig. 66, which must 
be reduced to zero by the action of the electrolytic cell. 

This resistance offered by the cell is sup¬ 
posedly due to a high resistance film being 
formed at the surface of the aluminum when 
the current is in a direction from the alumi¬ 
num to the electrolyte or iron plate. In the 
case just described, use is made of the avail¬ 
able pressure just one-half of the time and 
hence there is current in the circuit only half 
of the time. A storage battery connected in 
such a circuit could not be charged very sat¬ 
isfactorily or efficiently. 

A better arrangement of the cell may be made as shown dia- 
grammatically in Figs. 68 and 69. Two aluminum plates are 
used instead of one and they are connected to the source of 



Fig. 68 



alternating current through a choke coil as shown in Fig. 69. 
The operation of this arrangement may be followed briefly, as 
follows: Let us assume there is a current in the alternating 
current line in the direction indicated by the arrows marked 
1 and 2. The current meets with a high opposition in trying 































































162 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


to pass from the left-hand aluminum plate to the iron plate 
and as a result, the current in this circuit is practically zero. 
There is, however, a path of relatively low resistance from 
the point A to the point B through the battery to the iron plate 
through the cell to the right-hand aluminum plate and then to 
the point C. As a result of this current passing through the 
choke coil from the point A to the point B, there will be a current 
induced, due to transformer action, in the part of the winding 
beteen the points B and C, and its direction will be from the 
point C toward the point B where it combines with the current 
from the point A, and gives the total current through the battery. 
This results in the current in the battery being 10 amperes when 
the current in each of the two sections of the choke coil is approx¬ 
imately 5 amperes. 



Fig. 70 


Now when the current in the alternating current circuit re¬ 
verses, there will be no change in the direction of the current in 
the two sections of the choke coil, but both will still be toward 
the point B and through the battery, which results in the battery 
current being of the general form shown in Fig. 70. The dotted 
section of the curve which was wiped out entirely by the ar¬ 
rangement shown in Fig. 65, is now reversed in the direction 
relative to the other loops of the current curve and as a result, 
all of the loops are now in the same direction, which gives a much 
better charging current for the battery. 

If the electrolytic cell is to be self cooling, the aluminum plates 
should be of such a size that there are about 7 square inches of 
surface per ampere direct current, and the iron plate should be 
at least twice this size and better still if it is three times the area 
of the aluminum plates. The distance between the aluminum 













THE WORK SHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 163 


plates should be about one-lialf inch. The containing vessel 
should be of such a size that there is approximately one square 
foot of radiating surface per ampere direct current. An ordi¬ 
nary granite-ware bucket may be used as a containing vessel. 
The plates may be mounted on one-half inch strips of wood of 
ample length to reach across the top of the containing vessel. 
The dimensions of the plates may be made such that they will 
best fit in the containing vessel and small ears may be left on their 
corners to be used in attaching them to the wooden supporting 
strips. The electrolyte should consist of a saturated solution of 
pure neutral ammonium phosphate. The size of the plates and 
the volume of the electrolyte required to fill the large containing 
vessel in order to give ample radiating surface may be greatly 
reduced by using some artificial means of cooling. Cold water 
may be circulated through pipes placed in the electrolyte or the 
electrolyte itself may be made to circulate through outside cool¬ 
ing coils. 

The direct current voltage is roughly one-half of the alternat¬ 
ing current voltage and this relation is not fixed but depends upon 
the temperature of the electrolyte and the condition of the sur¬ 
face of the plates. 

With the arrangement shown in Fig. 69, it will be necessary 
to reduce the direct current voltage in order to charge a six-volt 
battery, if the source of alternating current is a 110-volt circuit. 
This reduction can be made by means of a resistance in series 
with the choke coil, or better still, by means of a small trans¬ 
former with several secondary taps so that current at several 
different voltages may be taken from the secondary winding. 
A resistance may be placed in series with the battery and the 
charging current regulated by varying the amount of this re¬ 
sistance. The transformer is, of course, the most efficient means 
of bringing about the desired voltage reduction. 

The construction of the choke coil will depend upon whether 
it is to be connected directly to the 110-volt circuit or to the 
secondary terminals of a transformer. If used directly con¬ 
nected to the alternating current circuit, it may be made by 
winding 300 turns of No. 18 B. & S. cotton covered wire on an 
iron ring 5 inches in diameter. This iron ring may be made by 





164 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


winding a quantity of small soft iron in a form until the area 
of the cross section of the ring is about % sq.fln. 

Remember that your direct current is not steady in value and 
as a result direct-current and alternating current instruments 
will not indicate the same value of current, as the direct-current 
instrument gives an indication of the average current and the 
alternating current instrument gives an indication of the effective 
current. 


Mechanical Rectifiers. 

Mechanical rectifiers have a vibrating armature which opens 
and closes the charging circuit. The circuit is closed during 

one half of each alternating current cycle, and open during the 

\ 

next half cycle. The circuit is thus closed as long as the 
alternating Current is flowing in the proper direction to charge 
the battery, and is open as long as the alternating current is 
flowing in the reverse direction. These rectifiers therefore 
charge the battery during half the time the battery is on charge, 
this also being the case in some of the arc rectifiers. 

The desired action is secured by a combination of permanent 
magnet and an electromagnet which is connected to the alter¬ 
nating current supply. During half of the alternating current 
cycle, the alternating current flowing through the winding of 
the electromagnet, magnetizes the electromagnet so that it 
strengthens the magnetism of the permanent magnet, thus caus¬ 
ing the vibrator arm to be drawn against the magnet. The 
vibrator arm carries a contact which touches a stationary con¬ 
tact point when the arm is drawn against the magnet, thus 
closing the charging circuit. 

During the next half of the alternating current cycle, or wave, 
the current through the electromagnet coil is reversed, and the 
magnetism of the electromagnet then weakens the magnetism of 
the permanent magnet, and the vibrator arm is drawn away 
from the magnet and the charging current is thus opened. Dur¬ 
ing the next half of the alternating current cycle the vibrator 
arm is again drawn against the magnet, and so on, the contact 
points being closed and opened during half of each alternating 
current cycle. 



TIIE WORK SHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 165 


Mechanical rectifiers are operated from the secondary wind¬ 
ings of transformers which reduce the voltage of the alternat¬ 
ing current line to the voltage desired for charging. Each rec¬ 
tifier 'unit may have its own complete transformer, or one large 
transformer may operate a number of rectifier units by having 
its secondary, or low tension winding divided into a number 
of sections, each of which operates one rectifier. 

The advantages of the mechanical rectifier are its simplicity, 
cheapness and portability. This rectifier also has the advan¬ 
tage of opening the charging circuit when the alternating cur¬ 
rent supply fails, and starting again automatically when the 
line is made alive again. Any desired number of independent 
units, each having its own charging line, may be used. The 
charging current generally has a maximum value of 6 amperes. 
Each rectifier unit is generally designed to charge only one or 
two six volt batteries at one time. 


Stahl Rectifier. 

This is a unique rectifier, in which the alternating current is 
rectified by being sent through a commutator which is rotated 
by a small alternating current motor, similar to the way the 
alternating current generated in the armature of a direct cur¬ 
rent generator is rectified in the commutator of the machine. 
The Stahl rectifier supplies the alternating current from a 
transformer instead of generating it as is done in a direct cur¬ 
rent generator. Brushes which hear on the commutator lead 
to the charging circuit. 

The Stahl rectifier is suitable for the larger service stations. 
It gives an interrupted direct current. It is simple in construc¬ 
tion and operation, and is free of delicate parts. 

Other Charging Equipment. 

If there is no electric lighting in the shop, it will be necessary 
to install a generator and a gas, gasoline, or steam engine, or a 
water-wheel to drive it. The generator should, of course, be 
a direct current machine, and large enough to furnish lights 
for the shop in addition to charging the batteries. The size 



166 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


of the generator will depend upon the average number of bat¬ 
teries to be charged, and the amount of money available. Any 
of the large electrical manufacturers or supply houses will give 
any information necessary for the selection of the type and 
size of the outfit required. 

If an old automobile engine, and radiator, gas tank, etc., are 
on hand, they can be suitably mounted so as to drive the gen¬ 
erator. 

Discharge Apparatus. 

A simple discharge rheostat is shown in Fig. 71. The terminal 
on the end of the cable attached to the right hand terminal of 


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DISCHARGE BOARD 

Fig. 71 


the battery shown in the illustration is movable, and it may be 
clamped at any point along the coils of wire so as to give various 
currents. The wire should be greased lightly to prevent rusting. 

Another simple apparatus consists of a board on which are 
mounted six double contact automobile lamp sockets which are 














































TIIE WORK SHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 167 


all connected in parallel. A pair of leads having test clips at¬ 
tached is brought out from the sockets for fastening to the 
battery terminals. Lamps of various candlepower may be turned 
into the sockets to obtain different currents. Discharge tests 
are helpful in the case of a battery that has lost capacity. The 
battery is first fully charged, and is then discharged at a rate 
equal to one-eighth of its nominal ampere-hour capacity. When 
the voltage of the battery has fallen to 1.8 volts per cell (meas¬ 
ured while the battery is discharging) a Cadmium test is made 
to determine whether the positives or negatives are causing the 
lack of capacity. For further descriptions of the Cadmium Test 
see Page 205. 

In reviving sulphated batteries, it is sometimes necessary to 
charge arid discharge the battery several times to put the active 
material in a healthy condition. A rate equal to about one- 
eighth of the ampere-hour capacity of the battery is used. 

Discharge tests at a high rate are very valuable in diagnosing 
the condition of a battery. A description of such tests will be 
found on Page 188. For making the heavy discharge tests a rheo¬ 
stat of the carbon plate type is suitable. With such a rheostat 
currents from 25 to more than 200 may be drawn from a six 
volt battery, and a smooth, even variation of a current may be 
obtained from the minimum to the maximum values. Such a 
rheostat is on the market and may be purchased complete with 
ammeter and leads for attaching to the battery. 


CHARGING METHODS. 


A man must have food and exercise to retain his health and 
strength. Moreover, there must be a proper balance between 
the food and exercise. Unused muscles become stiff and weak, 
and food alone will not restore their strength. A man who takes 
more food than his body needs becomes fat, sluggish and diseased. 
If, on the other hand, he works hard, and does not eat a suffi¬ 
cient amount of food, his body becomes exhausted, and he is sick, 
and unable to work. Even when no exercise is taken, the man 
must have food, or he will die of starvation. 

The storage battery is quite human in many respects. It must 




168 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


have the proper amount of food and exercise in order to be 
in the best of health. It must have food, even though it may 
be idle; but, on the other hand, it must not have too much food 
at any time, even though it may be working regularly and using 
up energy supplied by the food. 

A battery, unlike a man, has no mind to enable it to regulate 
its food and exercise, and is entirely at the mercy of the car 
owner and battery man. When called upon it must work as 
long as a bit of energy remains, and until it is completely ex¬ 
hausted and often hopelessly injured. It must also accept all 
the food offered to it, even though the amount is far in excess of 
that needed to restore the amount of energy used up in doing its 
work. Since the battery is thus unable to defend itself against 
any abuse and mistreatment to which it may be subjected, it 
becomes necessary for the car owner and repairmen to think for 
the battery, and to treat it as he does his own body, giving it 
the proper amount of food and exercise. 

Electricity is the battery’s food, and you feed the battery 
when you charge it. The electricity must be digested just as 
our own food is. The process of digestion in the battery consists 
of the formation of spongy lead and lead peroxide from the lead 
sulphate. When all the sulphate has been thus changed, the bat¬ 
tery has received as much food as it can digest, and if it is given 
more, the energy of the food will be wasted. 

The battery works by using energy resulting from the di¬ 
gestion of the electricity, and it should not be forced to work 
until its energy is completely exhausted, any more than a man 
should work until he drops from weariness. A man in such an 
overworked condition is sick, and requires careful nursing and 
feeding to restore his health. An overworked battery or starved 
battery requires slow feeding, because its weakened elements 
cannot absorb the food or charging current quickly, but must 
be charged at a low rate. 

The feeding of a battery is in the repairman’s hands, and he 
must see that the battery is not overworked or starved any more 
than he overworks or starves himself. Th'us, charging the bat¬ 
tery means more than simply sending a current through it. The 
current must not be supplied faster than the battery can absorb 


THE WORK SHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 169 


it. Batteries of different sizes must not be given the same amount 
of food any more than men of different sizes must be. 

Battery charging may in general be divided into two classifica¬ 
tions : 

1. Charging while on the car, by the generator installed on 
the car. 

2. Charging battery when removed from the car. 

Battery on the Car. 

With the battery on the car, the driving conditions deter¬ 
mine to a great extent the condition of charge, and the garage- 
man should watch them closely. The battery is alternately 
charged and discharged. The discharge takes place when the 
starter is used, or current is furnished to the lights, horn, igni¬ 
tion, etc. 

The battery furnishes these currents whenever the car is not 
running, or running at such a low speed that the dynamo does not 
charge the batter}^ Most generators are designed so that their 
outputs can be changed in order to keep the battery charged 
under the driving conditions of the particular car upon which 
the generator is placed. When cars leave the factory, the gen¬ 
erators are set to produce a current which will keep the battery 
charged under average driving conditions. This current should 
never be changed unless a battery does not receive endugh charge 
due to unusual driving conditions, or receives too high a charge 
as indicated by high temperatures (above 105°F), or abnormal 
gassing. 

It is important to check the action of the cutout in closing and 
opening the charging circuit. (See page 234.) The cutout should 
close as soon as the generator voltage is slightly greater than 
that of the battery, and should open the circuit as soon as the 
generator voltage is slightly less than that of the battery. 

The temperature of the battery on the car must be watched 
closely. If a thermometer indicates that the temperature of the 
electrolyte is above 105°, and the connectors on top of the bat¬ 
tery feel hot, the charging rate of the dynamo must be decreased. 
If the charging rate cannot be changed, the lamps should be 



170 


the automobile storage battery 


burned, day or night, whenever the car is running. This will cut 
down the charging current delivered to the battery and prevent 
overheating. 

If the specific gravity of the electrolyte is always below 1.250, 
due to unusual driving conditions, the output of the generator 
must be increased so as to keep the battery charged, or the lights 
should be used sparingly. 

Bench Charge. 

With the battery off the car, the charge and discharge can be 
regulated by the repairman. There are many things to be con¬ 
sidered in such charging. 

The great majority of battery men have adopted the plan of 
connecting batteries in series while charging them. This is un¬ 
doubtedly the cheapest and most convenient method. 

Batteries which have different voltages and capacities require 
different charging currents, and great care should be taken that 
the batteries which are connected in series require approximately 
the same charging currents, and are of the same voltage. Garage- 
men are often careless in this respect, and the smaller batteries are 
greatly overcharged and literally “boiled to death." In charg¬ 
ing, therefore, do not connect batteries of various sizes in series 
and send the charging current required by the larger batteries 
through them. The smaller batteries will heat up in their at¬ 
tempt to absorb the heavier current required by the larger bat¬ 
teries, and may be permanently injured. 

Furthermore, the batteries should be in approximately the same 
state of discharge, as shown by the specific gravity readings. If 
these readings differ considerably among the various batteries, 
those with the highest readings should be watched carefully, and 
removed from the circuit when there is no further rise in specific 
gravity after all cells are gassing freely. Never start a charge 
at such a high rate that gassing takes place immediately, or 
before the specific gravity stops rising. 

In connecting a battery to a charging line, always connect the 
positve battery to the positive line wire, and connect the nega¬ 
tive battery terminal to the negative line wire, Fig. 72. If 



THE WORK SHOP. 


GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 


171 


you connect a number of batteries in series for charging, connect 
the positive terminal of one battery to the negative terminal 
of the next, Fig. 73. See also Fig. 64. 

Instead of connecting all the cells in series, it is a good plan 
to have several charging circuits in parallel, and connect enough 
batteries in series on each circuit to obtain the correct charsdntr 
current. In this way, batteries of various capacities may be 
charged at once, each circuit being composed of batteries of ap¬ 
proximate^ the same capacity. 

The sum of the voltages of the batteries which are connected 
in series should never be greater than the voltages of the charg- 



CHAPQING A SIN<qL_E BATTERY 


CHARGING! BATTERIES IN SERIES 


Fig. 72 Fig. 73 

ing circuit. This would result in the batteries discharging back 
into the line, instead of being charged. 

When a Bench Charge Is Necessary. If a battery runs down 
on account of generator not having a sufficient output, or on 
account of unusual driving conditions, or neglect, give the battery 
a charge. Such a charge is necessary: 

(a) When the specific gravity readings of all cells are below 
1.200. and within 50 points of each other. 

(b) When the lamps burn dimly (with the engine not run¬ 
ning). 

(c) When voltage per cell has fallen below 1.80 (with lamps 
burning). 

(d) When electrolyte has fallen below the tops of the plates 
and battery is not giving satisfactory service. Water should 
first be added to bring electrolyte up to the correct height. 

Battery Which Has Been “Doped.” Sometimes a battery 
will be completely discharged, as shown by dim lights and volt- 



































172 


THE AUTOMOBILE 


STORAGE BATTERY 


age below 1.8 per cell, but the hydrometer reading will be 1.200 
or above. This shows that acid has been added to the discharged 
battery instead of water. Give battery a full charge at once, 
and then reduce specific gravity to 1.280 by removing some elec¬ 
trolyte and adding water. Cells should be gassing while this 
is done, and the specific gravity reading should not be taken 
until an hour after adding water. The time required to charge 
such a battery depends 'upon the extent to which the battery has 
been damaged by the acid. If a considerable amount of acid 
has been added, the plates may be badly sulphated, and require 
a long charge, or the separators may be rotted, making it neces¬ 
sary to open the battery. See page 246. 

Rates. Most manufacturers give a “starting” rate and a “fin¬ 
ishing” rate. It is generally better, however, to start the charge 
at less than the starting rate to avoid high temperatures and 
premature gassing. 

The charging current for any battery is governed by two 
things—(1) Temperature, and (2) Gassing. 

(1) Temperature. Have a thermometer on hand and meas¬ 
ure the temperature of the electrolyte in each cell once every 
hour. If the temperature rises above 105°F, reduce the charging 
current so that the temperature drops to at least 90°F. 

(2) Gassing. A battery will begin to gas if too high a charg¬ 
ing current is used. If any cell gasses, reduce the current im¬ 
mediately, as long continued gassing will cause excessive shed¬ 
ding. 

If the temperature of the electrolyte does not rise above 105°F 
and if the cells do not gas, the current may be increased. Never 
use a current that will cause a higher temperature or bring 
about gassing long before the specific gravity stops rising. 5 
to 10 amperes current will be satisfactory in most cases. 

Time Required. The charge should be continued until all cells 
are gassing freely, and until there has been no rise in the specific 
gravity for several hours. If the charge was started at the 
“starting” rate, reduce the current to the “finishing” or 24 hour 
rate when the cells begin to gas. Violent gassing indicates that 
the current is too high and must be reduced. If the specific grav- 


THE WORK SHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 173 


ity rises to 1.280-1.300 within 24 hours, the battery was not badly 
sulphated. 

Sulphated Battery. If the battery is badly sulphated, the 
charge should be continued at a low rate for several days to a 
week, or in extreme cases, several weeks. If the gravity is 
then 1.280-1.300, the battery is rejuvenated. If the gravity will 
not come up to normal, it will be necessary to discharge the bat¬ 
tery and then charge it again. It may be necessary to repeat 
this cycle of charge and discharge several times, before the plates 
are in a healthy condition. 

Discharging. To discharge the battery connect it to the Dis¬ 
charge Board (see page 166) and draw from the battery a cur¬ 
rent w T hose value in amperes does not exceed one-eighth of the 
ampere capacity of the battery. Thus for an 80 ampere hour 
battery, the current should be 10 amperes. Discharge the bat¬ 
tery until the voltage of each cell has dropped to 1.8. This volt¬ 
age should be measured while the discharge current is still flow¬ 
ing. Then charge the battery again, and discharge it, repeating 
the charge and discharge several times. This should remove most 
of the sulphate. 

When you discharge such a battery notice how long it taker 
for the voltage to drop to 1.8 per cell. Multiply this time by the 
discharge current, and if this product is very much less than the 
normal ampere-hdur capacity of the battery, the plates have been 
too severely damaged to be of further use, and the battery should 
be opened. See page 246. 

Rapid Temperature Rise. If the temperature of one or all the 
cells in a battery rises rapidly without gassing when the battery 
is put on charge, there is trouble in the battery, and it should be 
opened. See page 246. 

If Gravity Will Not Rise Above About 1.260. If you are charg¬ 
ing a battery at the normal rate, and the temperature does not 
rise above 105° F at any time, and if gassing begins before the 
specific gravity rises to 1.280-1.300, and the specific gravity will 
not rise above, say, 1.260, it is probable that electrolyte has been 
spilled from flooding due to overfilling, or slopping, and has been 
replaced by water. In this case, draw off some of the electrolyte 
and replace it with electrolyte having a specific gravity of 1.400. 


174 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


This should be done while the cells are gassing. One hour after 
adding the electrolyte measure the specific gravity of each cell. 
If this is below 1.280 draw off more electrolyte and add 1.400 
electrolyte. 

If Gravity Will Not Rise Above 1.200- Frequently the specific 
gravity of a battery on the charging bench may not use above 
about 1.200, no matter how long the batterty is charged, and it 
is a question what should be done with the battery. It is diffi¬ 
cult to lay down a hard and fast rule for handling such batteries, 
because the repairman generally has no way of knowing just what 
has been done with the battery before it came into his shop. Such 
cases call for the use of common sense and good judgment. Ques¬ 
tion the owner as to how old his battery is, how many times and 
when, it has been removed from the car and charged, whether 
electrotlyte has been spilled, and so on. There are several things 
which may prevent the gravity from rising. 

(a) There may be considerable sediment in the jars. If the 
battery has at some time been in a sulphated condition, and has 
been charged at too high a rate, the gassing that resulted will 
have caused chips of the sulphate to drop to the bottom of the 
jars. When this sulphate was formed, some of the acid was 
taken from the electrolyte, and if the sulphate drops from the 
plates, this amount of acid cannot be recovered, no matter how 
long the charge is continued. If the owner tells you that his bat¬ 
tery has stood idle for several months at some time, this is a 
condition which may exist. The reined}" is to wash and press 
the negatives (page 275), wash the positives, put in new sepa¬ 
rators (page 289), pour out the old electrolyte and wash out the 
jars (page 284), fill with 1.400 acid, and charge the battery (page 
273). 

(b) Impurities may have used up some of the acid which 
cannot be recovered by charging. If the plates are not much 
damaged the remedy is the same as for (a). Damaged plates 
may require renewal (page 260). 

(c) Electrolyte may have been spilled accidentally, and re¬ 
placed by water. 

(d) Too much water may have been added, with the result 


THE WORK SHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 175 


that the expansion of the electrolyte due to a rise in temperature 
in charge caused it to overflow. This of course resulted in a loss 
of some of the acid. 

The causes given in (c) and (d) may have resulted in the 
top of the battery case being acid-eaten or rotted. The rem¬ 
edy in these two instances is to draw off some of the electrolyte, 
add some 1.400 acid, and continue the charge. If plates and 
separators look good and there is but little sediment, this is the 
thing to do. 

(e) The separators may be soggy and somewhat charred 
and blackened, or the} 7 may be clogged up with sulphate, and the 
battery may need new separators. 

(f) The spongy lead may be bulged, or the positives may be 
buckled. The active material is then not making good contact 
with the grids, and the charging current cannot get at all the 
sulphate and change it to active material. The remedy in such 
a case is to press the negatives so as to force the active material 
back into the grids, and to put in new positives if they are con¬ 
siderably buckled. 

The proper thing to do with the battery whose gravity will 
not rise above 1.200, therefore, depends on which of the above 
conditions exists. Such batteries have been replaced on the car 
with the gravity at 1.200 and have given good service for more 
than a year. In others, the electrolyte has been brought up by 
removing some of the electrolyte and adding 1.400 acid, and the 
batteries have given good service. In other cases the addition 
of the 1.400 acid did not help, and the batteries did not give 
good service. 

If you can do so, call up the owner, or have him come to 
your shop. Put the proposition up to him, and tell him that the 
battery may give good service if put on his car with the elec¬ 
trolyte at 1.200, or that it may give good service if the electro¬ 
lyte is balanced with 1.400 acid, but that you cannot guarantee 
that the battery will actually give good service. Tell him frankly 
that no one can tell just what the internal condition is by 
looking at the outside of the battery. Tell him that the very 
best thing to do is to open one of the cells for inspection. The 
other cells are, in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, in the same 



176 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


condition as the one you open. "With the one cell open, you can 
decide j'ust what must be done, and can turn out the battery 
and guarantee that it will give good service. 

Gravity Rises Above 1.300. If the specific gravity of a battery 
on charge rises above 1.300, either acid or electrolyte have been 
added instead of water. Remove some of the electrolyte and add 
pure water in its place^ When the cells are gassing, and the 
specific gravity does not rise in several hours, the electrolyte 
should have a specific gravity of 1.280 and if necessary, electrolyte 
should be drawn off and replaced with distilled water, or 1.400 
electrolyte, depending on whether the specific gravity of the elec¬ 
trolyte in the battery is above or below 1.280. 

High Rate Discharge Test. Just before putting the battery 
into service at the end of the bench charge, give it a high rate 
discharge test (page 188). This will tell you whether the bat¬ 
tery will give good service. 

Leave the Vent Plugs in When Charging. The atmosphere 
in many service stations, where the ventilation is poor, is so 
filled with acid fumes that customers object to doing business 
there. 

The owners of these places may not notice these conditions, 
being used to it, or rather glory in being able to breathe such 
air without coughing or choking, but it certainly does not invite 
a customer to linger and spend his money. 

The remedy for such a condition is to leave the vent plugs 
in the batteries that are charging so that the acid in the gas 
from the battery condenses out as it strikes these plugs and drips 
back into the cells, while the gas passes out through the small 
openings in the plug. 

The plugs need only be screwed into the openings by one 
turn, or only set on top of the vent openings to accomplish the 
result. 

This takes no additional time and more than repays for itself 
in the saving of rusted tools and improved conditions in the bat¬ 
tery room and surroundings. 

Painting Recharge Batteries. Some successful service stations 
pursue a policy of wiping off every battery that comes in to 
them for recharging and apply a coat of black paint. For the 





THE WORK SHOP. 


GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 


177 


recharge batteries, this paint is simply very thin shellac in which 
lamp black has been added to make it black. This dries in five 
minutes with a good gloss. 

Once in a while a very honest customer will refuse to take his 
battery after it has been painted in this manner, saying that his 
was an old battery and not a new one, but they all go away with 
the feeling that if such pains are taken with the outside of a 
battery, it will certainly pay to bring it into the same place when 
the inside needs repairing. 


LEAD BURNING APPARATUS. 


In joining the connectors and terminals to the positive and 
negative posts, and in joining plate straps to form a “group,” 
the parts are joined or welded together, melting the surfaces to 
be joined, and then melting in lead from sticks called “burning 
lead.” The process of joining these parts in this manner is 
known as “lead burning.” Directions for “lead burning” are 
given on page 301. 

There are various devices by means of which the lead is melted 
during the “lead burning” process. The most satisfactory of 
these use a hot, pointed flame. Where such a flame is not ob¬ 
tainable, a hot carbon rod is used. 

The methods are given in the following list in the order of their 
efficiency: 

1. Oxygen and Acetylene Under Pressure in Separate Tanks. 

The gases are sent through a mixing valve to the burning tip. 
These gases give the hottest flame. 

2. Oxygen and Hydrogen Under Pressure in Separate Tanks, 
Fig. 74. The flame is a very hot one and is very nearly as sat¬ 
isfactory as the oxygen and acetylene. 

3. Oxygen and Illuminating Gas. Special apparatus is nec¬ 
essary, and a pump for raising the pressure of the gas is needed 
in most places. This is a very satisfactory method, and one 
that has become very popular. In this method it is absolutely 
necessary to have a wash bottle in the gas line to prevent the 
oxygen from backing up into the gas line and making a highly 



178 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 



Fig. 74. Hydrogen-Oxygen Lead Burning Outfit. A and B are Regulat¬ 
ing Valves. C is the Safety Flash Back Tank. D is the Mixing Valve. E 
is the Burning Tip 





explosive mixture which will cause a violent explosion that may 
wreck the entire shop. 

4. Hydrogen and Compressed Air. This is the method that 
was very popular several years ago, but is not used to any ex¬ 
tent at present because of the development of the first three 
methods. A special torch and low pressure air supply give a 
very satisfactory flame. 

5. Wood Alcohol Torch. A hand torch with a double jet 
burner gives a very clean, non-oxidizing flame. The flame is 
not as sharp as the oxygen flame, and the torch is not easily 
handled without the use of burning collars and moulds. The torch 



Fig. 75. Carbon Lead Burning Outfit 


has the advantage of being small, light and portable. A joint 
may be burned without removing the battery from the car. 

6. Gasoline Torch. A double jet gasoline torch may be used, 
provided collars or moulds are used to prevent the lead from 
running off. The torch gives a broad flame which heats the 
parts very slowly, and the work cannot be controlled as easily 
as in the preceding methods. 

7. Carbon Arc. This is a very simple method, and requires 
only a spare 6 volt battery, a *4 inch carbon rod, carbon holder, 
cable, and clamp for attaching to battery. This outfit is shown 
in Fig. 75. It may be bought from the Electric Storage Bat¬ 
tery Co., of Philadelphia. This outfit is intended to be used 
only when gas is not available, and not where considerable 
burning is to be done. 




180 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


In using this outfit, one terminal of an extra 6 volt battery is 
connected by a piece of cable with the connectors to be burned. 
The contact between cable and connector should be clean and 
tight. The cable which is attached to the carbon rod is then 
connected to the other terminal of the extra battery, if the bat¬ 
tery is not fully charged, or to the connector on the next cell if 
the battery is fully charged. The number of cells used should 
be such that the carbon is heated to at least a bright cherry red 
color when it is touching the joint which is to be burned to¬ 
gether. 

Sharpen the carbon to a pencil point, and adjust its position 
so that it projects from the holder about one inch. Occasionally 
plunge the holder and hot carbon in a pail of water to prevent 
carbon from overheating. After a short time, a scale will form 
on the Surface of the carbon, and this should be scraped off with 
a knife or file. 

In burning in a connector, first melt the lead of the post and 
connector before adding the burning lead. Keep the carbon 
point moving over all parts to be joined, in order to insure a per¬ 
fectly welded joint. 

8. Illuminating Gas and Compressed Air. This is the slow¬ 
est method of any. Pump equipment is required, and this method 
should not be used unless none of the other methods is avail¬ 
able. 

The selection of the burning apparatus will depend upon 
individual conditions as well as prices, and the apparatus se¬ 
lected should be one as near the beginning of the foregoing list 
as possible. Directions for the manipulation of the apparatus 

are given b}^ the manufacturers. 

/ 

* f 

PUTTING NEW BATTERIES INTO SERVICE. 

Unpack the battery, keeping the packing case right side up 
to avoid spilling electrolyte. 

Brush off all excelsior and dirt, and examine the battery care¬ 
fully to see if it has been damaged during shipment. If any 
damage has been done, claim should be made against the express 
or railroad company. 


THE WORK SHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 181 


Determine whether the battery has been shipped in a “wet” 
or “dry” condition. 

Batteries shipped “wet” leave the factory filled with elec¬ 
trolyte, and in a fully charged condition. Batteries shipped 
“dry” are shipped without any electrolyte. There are several 
methods of preparing batteries for dry shipment, as described 
on page 30. 

Batteries Shipped Fully Charged, or “Wet.” 

1. Remove the vent caps from the cells and determine the 
height of the electrolyte. It shotild stand from three-eighths to 
one-half inch above the tops of the plates. The level may be 
determined with a glass tube, as shown in Fig. 35. If the 
electrolyte is below the tops of the plates, it has either been 
spilled, or else there is a leaky jar. If all cells have a low level 
of electrolyte, it is probable that the electrolyte has been spilled. 

2. Next measure the specific gravity of the electrolyte of each 
cell with the hydrometer, and then add water to bring the elec¬ 
trolyte up to the correct level, if this is necessary. Should the 
temperature of the air be below freezing, charge the battery 
for an hour if water is added no matter what the specific grav¬ 
ity readings are. This will cause the water to mix thoroughly 
with the electrolyte. If the battery were not charged after 
water is added, the water, being lighter than the electrolyte, 
would remain on top and freeze. For this one hour charge, 
use the “starting” rate, as stamped on the nameplate. 

3. If the specific gravity of the electrolyte reads below 1.250, 
charge the battery until the specific gravity reads between 1.280 
and 1.300. For this charge use the normal bench charging rates. 

4. After this charge place the battery on a clean, dry spot 
for twenty-four hours as an extra test for a leaky jar. If there 
is any dampness under the battery, or on the lower part of the 
battery case, a leaky jar is indicated. An inspection of the level 
of the electrolyte, which should be made even though no damp¬ 
ness shows, will show the leaky jar. 

5. Just before putting the battery on the car, make the high 
rate discharge test on it. See page 188. 



182 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


BATTERIES SHIPPED “DRY.” 

Exide Batteries. 

Storing. 1 . Keep the battery in a dry, clean place, and keep 
the room temperature above 32 degrees, and below 110 degrees 
Fahrenheit. 

2. Put the battery into service before the expiration of the 
time limit given on the tag attached to the battery. The process 
of putting the battery into service will require about five days. 

3. If the battery has been allowed to stand beyond the time 
limit, open up one of the cells just before beginning the process 
necessary to put the battery into service. If the separators are 
found to be cracked, split, or warped, throw away all the sepa¬ 
rators from all the cells and put in new ones. If the separators 
are in good condition, reassemble the cell and put the battery into 
service. 

Putting Battery into Service. 1. Fill the cells with electro¬ 
lyte of the correct specific gravity. To do this, remove the 
vent plugs and pour in the electrolyte until it rises to the bottom 
of the filler tubes. The correct specific gravities of the elec¬ 
trolyte to be 'used are as follows: 

(a) For Types JX, XC and XE, use 1.360 electrolyte. In 
tropical countries 'use 1.260 electrolyte. 

(b) For Types LX, LXR, LXRE, LXRY and SX, use 1.340 
electrolyte. In tropical countries use 1.260 electrolyte. 

(c) For Types MHA, P1IA, and PHC, use 1.320 electrolyte. 
In tropical countries use 1.260 electrolyte. 

(d) For Type ZA, use 1.320 electrolyte. In tropical coun¬ 
tries use 1.240 electrolyte, 

(e) For Types KXD and KZ, use 1.300 electrolyte. In tropi¬ 
cal countries use 1.240 electrolyte. 

2. After filling with the electrolyte, allow the battery to stand 
ten to fifteen hours before starting the initial charge. This gives 
the electrolyte time to cool. 

3. No sooner than ten to fifteen hours after filling the battery 
with electrolyte, add water to bring the electrolyte up to the 
bottom of the filler tubes, if the level has fallen. Replace the 
vent caps and turn them to the right, or else give the collars in 


THE WORK SHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 183 

few* 

the filler tubes a q'uarter turn to the right. This will open the 
vent holes and allow gases which may gather under the cover to 
escape. If these vent holes are not open, flooding may result. 

Start charging at the rates shown in the following table. 
Continue charging at this rate for at least 96 hours (4 days). 


Table of Initial and Repair Charging Rates. 




TYPE AXD 

SIZE OF CELL, 


Charging 

Rate 

Amperes 

Minimum 

Hours 

TC7-3. 

_7A-5. 




*/ 2 

96 

..7. A-7.. 

% 

96 


. ..T„X-5. 

.. -T.XR- 5_ 



1 V 2 

96 

.KXTT-5. 

2 

96 




.XC-9. 

.. SX- 9. 

214 

96 

.TV-1 1 ... 

... KXTV- 7_ 

...TiXR-9_ 

...r,XRE-fl.xc-i 1_ 


3 

9 6 

.S.X-1 3. 

3 Va 

96 

.TX-13 

. ..KXD-9_ 

..XiXR-1 1.. 

.XC-13. 

.. XE-13. 

4 

9 6 

-TX-1 5... 


..LXR-13.. 

... XRE-13_XC-1 5_ 

.. XE-1 5. 

4 y 2 

96 


.KXD-11.. 


.XC-17. 


5 ' 

96 


....LXRV-15 

..LXR-15.. 

.. .IjXRE -15. 


5 V 2 

96 

.Tx-iim 

.. .LX-1 7_ 

...LiXR-1 7.. 

. ..LXR.E-17... XC-19.... 

.. XE-19. 

6 

96 

META - 11 

. PHA-13.. 

...PlIC-13.. 



6 

96 



.XC-21_ 

..XE-21. 

6 Y» 

96 

.XC-23. 

7 

96 


714 

96 


4. Occasionally measure the temperature of the electrolyte. 
Do not allo^y the temperature to rise above 105° Fahrenheit 
(120° Fahrenheit in tropical countries). Should the temperature 
reach 105°, stop the charge long enough to allow the tempera¬ 
ture to drop below 100°. 

5. At the end of the charge, the specific gravity of the elec¬ 
trolyte should be between 1.280 and 1.300 (1.210 and 1.230 in 
tropical countries). If it is not between these limits adjust it 
by drawing off some of the electrolyte with the hydrometer and 
replacing with water if the specific gravity is too high, or with 
electrolyte of the same specific gravity used in filling the battery, 
if the specific gravity is too low. 

6. Wipe off the top and sides of the battery case with a rag 
dampened with ammonia to neutralize any electrolyte which may 
have been spilled. 

7. Just before putting the battery into service, give it a high 
rate discharge test. See page 188. 

U. S. L. Batteries. 

Do not remove vent plugs from cells Until you are ready to 
add electrolyte and to place Battery in service. 





































































184 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


To put Battery into service: 

1. Remove vent pings and immediately pour in electrolyte 
of 1.400 specific gravity until it rises above tops of plates to the 
“electrolyte level” which the following table shows to be correct 
for the type of battery being put into service. 


Correct Charging Rates for Different Types USL Batteries. 


Charging Rates for Batteries, Types A-, AD-, 
ADL-, AL-, D-, EDC-, F-, FL-, 

LA-, LAB-. 





Charging-Rates 




Amperes 

Use Charginq Rates 



t_ 

Opposite the Particular 

C 

t 

3 


Type 

No. 

r 

Ji & 

X 




a 

c = 

Tf 




C 0 

U. 

CM 

-307 

-607 

-807 -907.. 

6 

1 Vi 

2y 4 

-309 

-609 

-809 -909..' 

8 

2 

3 

-3 11 

-611 

-8 11 -911.. 

10 

2 i / 2 

3% 

-3 13 

-613 

-813 -913.. 

1 2 

3 

4y 2 

-3 1 5 

-615 

-815 . 

14 

3 Vi 

51/4 

-317 

-617 


16 

4 

6 

-3 19 



18 

4 Vi 

6% 

-3 2 1 



2 0 

5 

7 Vi 

-323 


. 

22 

5 Vi 

8 y* 


Batteries, Type 

EL-. 



-3 0 7 

-607 

-1207 . 

5 

11/4 

2 

-309 

-609 

-12 09 . 

6% 

1 % 

2 Vi 

-3 1 1 

-611 

-12 11 . 

8 i / 2 

2 

3 Vi 

-3 13 

-613 


10 

21/2 

31/4 

-3 15 

-615 


11% 

3 

4 Vi 

Batteries, Types C-. CD-, CDC-, CDL-, 

CL-. 

-3 0 7 

-607 

-807 -907.. 

7 

1% 

214 

-3 0 9 

-6 0 9 

-809 -909.. 

9 

21/4 

3y 2 

-3 11 

-61 1 

-811 -911.. 

11 

3 

4% 

-3 13 

-613 

-8 13 -9 13.. 

14 

3% 

5 


Use Charging Rates 
Opposite the Particular 

Type No. 

Charging-Rates 
Amperes 

Starting 

Finish¬ 

ing 

t- 

3 

O 

X 

Tf 

CM 

-315 - 6 1 5 - 8 1 5. 

16 

4 

6 

-3 17 -6 17 . 

1 8 

4 Vi 

6% 

-3 19 . 

2 0 

5 

71/2 

-321 . 

2 3 

5y 2 

81/2 

-3 2 3 . 

25 

6y 4 

9% 


Batteries. Type K 


-3 0 3 

-603 

-1 2 0 3 . 

2 

1 

iy 2 

-305 

-605 

-12 05 . 

4 

2 

3 

-3 0 7 

-6 0 7 

-1207 . 

6 

3 

4 Vi 

-3 0 9 

-60 9 

-1209 . 

8 

4 

6 

-3 11 

-611 

-1211 . 

10 

5 

7 Vi 


Batteries. Types G-, GD-, GDL-, GL-. 


-3 

O 

7 

-60 

7 

-8 

0 

7 

-9 

0 

7.. 


8% 

2 Vi 

31/4 

-3 

0 

9 

- 6 0 

9 

-8 

0 

9 

-9 

O 

9.. 

1 

1% 

3 

4% 

-3 

1 

1 

-6 1 

1 

-8 

1 

1 

-9 

1 

1 .. 

1 

4 Vi 

3% 

5y 2 

-3 

1 

3 

-6 1 

3 

-8 

1 

3 

-9 

1 

3.. 

1 

7 y ? 

4% 

6% 

-3 

1 

5 

-61 

5 

-8 

1 

5 




2 

0% 

5 

7% 

-3 

1 

n 

1 

-6 1 

7 







2 

314 

5% 

8% 

-3 

1 

9 









2 

614 

6y 2 

9% 

-3 

2 

1 









2 

91/8 

7y 4 

10% 

-3 

2 

3 









3 

2 

8 

12 


Batteries, Type HD-. 


-3 11 . 

.112 

3 Vi 

4% 

-3 13 . 

. 15 

4 

5% 

-3 15 . 


4 Vi 

61/2 


Correct Electrolyte Levels for Different Types USL Batteries 


Type A 
Type AD 
Type APP 
Type AL 
Type C .. 
Type OP 


Heights ct Surface of Electrolyte Above Plate Tops. 


Vi inch Type OPC .% inch 

% inch Type CPP .-% inch 

% inch Type CP .% inch 

Vi inch Type P .% inch 

Vi inch Type EPC . 1 inch 

% inch Type EP .% inch 


Type F . Vz inch Type GP 

Type FP .% inch Type K . 

Type G . Vi inch Type LA 

Type GP ..% inch Type PAE 

Type GPP .% inch Type HP 


Vi inch 
Vi inch 
Vz inch 
Vi inch 
% inch 


2. Then leaving vents off, place the battery on charge at the 
proper 24 hour rate shown in above table. Occasionally take 
the temperature of the electrolyte of each cell of battery. Tf 
temperature exceeds 105° F, reduce charging current, or stop 
charging if necessary until temperature falls. 

3. Continue charge until the specific gravity and voltage of 
each cell rise to constant values, if the battery has been in transit 








































































































THE WORK SHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 185 


for a long period of time, twelve hours or more of charging mav 
be necessary. Regardless of the length of time required, con¬ 
tinue the charge 'until all cells are gassing (bubbling) freely, and 
the gravity of all cells has shown no further rise during three 
hours. 

4. If at the end of charge the specific gravity of the electrolyte 
in am- cell is not at 1.280, remove some of the electrolyte and 
add either 1.400 acid to strengthen, or water to weaken as re¬ 
quired. All the cells should be at 1.280 with the electrolyte above 
plate tops, and at, the correct “electrolyte level” shown in the 
table on page 184. 

5. Just before putting the battery into service, make a high 
rate discharge test on it. See page 188. 

Vesta Batteries. 

1. Remove vent caps from each cell and fill with electrolyte 
of 1.000 specific gravity. This electrolyte should not have a tem¬ 
perature greater than 75° Fahrenheit when added to the cells. 

2. After the addition of this acid, the battery will begin to 
heat and it should be left standing from 12 to 24 hours or until 
it has cooled off. 

3. Battery should then be put on charge at the finish charg¬ 
ing rate stamped on the name plate. Continue charging at this 
rate for approximately 48 to 72 hours or until the gravity and 
voltage readings of each cell stop rising. 

4. Care should be taken to see that the temperature of bat¬ 
tery does not rise above 105° Fahrenheit. If this occurs, the 
charging rate should be cut down. 

5. The acid in each cell will undoubtedly have to be equalized. 

6. At the finish of this developing charge the gravity should 
read 1.280 in each cell. If below this, equalize by putting in 1.400 
specific gravity acid, or if the contrary is the case and the acid is 
above 1.280 add sufficient distilled water until the gravity reads 

1.280. - - 

7. After the acid has been equalized and it has stopped rising 
in density the voltage of each cell while still on charge at the 
finishing rate should read at least 2.5 volts per cell or better. 




186 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


8. The battery is then ready for service. Just before putting 
battery into service, make a high rate discharge test on it. See 
page 188. 

Prest-O-Lite Batteries. 

Prest-O-Lite batteries shipped dry are identified by a green 

seal. In preparing these batteries for shipment, the positive 

and negative groups are meshed, and their posts locked into the 

cell covers by the method described on page 320. Instead of the 

'usual separators, fiber board spacers are placed between plates. 

The groups are then set in the jars which are in their proper 

places in the case. The covers are not sealed, and top connectors 

and terminals are not burned on. These batteries mav be stored 

«/ 

as they are received, and kept in storage until needed. They 
are put into service as follows: 

1. Remove elements from cells and take out the fiber board 
spacers from between the plates. Put in the regular wood sep¬ 
arators in place of the fiber spacers. Be careful to remove all 
of these fiber spacers, as they cannot be used for separators. 

2. Place elements back in the jars exactly as they were taken 
out. 

3. Seal the covers with hot sealing compound. 

4. Burn on the cell connectors and terminals. 

5. Fill cells to correct level with 1.300 specific gravity elec¬ 
trolyte. 

6. Allow battery to stand for not less than one hour, and 
not more than two hours. Then place it on charge at the “ finish ” 
rate stamped on the name plate for forty-eight hours. During 
the charge, the temperature of the electrolyte in each cell should 
be measured every four or five hours. If the temperature reaches 
105° Fahrenheit, stop the charge and allow the battery to cool 
below 100°, adding the time that the battery thus stands idle to 
the forty-eight hours from the start of the charge. 

7. At the end of the charge adjust the electrolyte, if neces¬ 
sary, by drawing off some electrolyte and replacing it with water 
or 1.400 electrolyte, whichever is needed to bring the specific 
gravity up to 1.280. 


THE WORK SHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 187 


8. Just before putting the battery into service, make a high 
rate discharge test on it. See page 188. 

Philadelphia Diamond Grid Batteries. 

1. Remove the vent plugs and immediately fill the cells with 
electrolyte until the level is even with the bottom of the filler 
tube in the cover. Do not fill with electrolyte whose temperature 
is above 90° Fahrenheit. The specific gravity of the electrolyte 
to be used in starting batteries varies with the number of plates 
in each cell, the correct values being as follows: 


No. of 

Specific No. of 

Specific 

Plates 

Gravity Plates 

Gravity 

5 . 

.1.250 15 . 

.1.270 

7 . 

.1.250 17 . 

. 1.270 

9 . 

.1.260 19 . 

.1.280 

11 . 

.1.270 21 . 

.1.280 

13 . 

.1.270 23 . 

.1.280 


For all lighting batteries, types S and ST, use 1.240 electrolyte. 

2. Allow the battery to stand for one or two hours. 

3. Remove the paper seal from the top of the filler caps, and 
open the hole in the top with a wire. Make sure that this hole is 
open by blowing through the cap. 


TYPE BATTERl r 


No. of 
Plates 

LL-LLR- 

LH 

LM- 

LMR 

LR- 

LTR 

LS- 

LSR 

j LG 

S 

ST 

LSF 


CHARGING CURRENT IN AMPERES 

5. 

..I.O.... 

..I.O.... 



. 

-2.0.... 

1.... 1.5- 


7. 

..1.5.... 

.. 1.5.... 

..1.5.... 

.. 2.0.... 


.... 3.0.... 

.... 2.0.... 

....1.5.... 

9. 

..2.0_ 

..2.5.... 

..2.0.... 

..2.5.... 

....3.6.... 

_4.0_ 

.. . , . 

............ 

1 1. 

..2.5.... 

..3.0- 

..2.5.... 

..3.5.... 

-4.O.... 

....5.0.... 

........ 

. 

13. 

..3.0.... 

..3.5.... 

..3.0_ 

.. 4.0.... 

• • • • 

............. 

.......... 

....2.5.... 

1 5. 

..3.5.... 

.. 4.0.... 

..3.5.... 

..4.5.... 

....5.5.... 

............ 

............. 


3 7. 

..4.0_ 

..5.0.... 

..4.0.... 

..5.5.... 


............. 

-6.0.... 

............ 

19. 

..4.5.... 

..5.5.... 

..4.5.... 

..6.0- 

. , . .......... 

. . . 

. . 

..^ 

2 1. 

..5.0.... 








23. 

..5.5.... 









The number of plates per cell is indicated in the first numeral of the type name. 
712LLA-1 is a 7 plate EL, and 13 6LMA-3 is a 13 plate LM. 

Special batteries: 


Type 

.3 3 OAAI ... 
5 2 4 STD-H2 
7 6SPN 
136USA ... 


Charging Rate 
1.0 amps. 
1.0 amps. 

1.5 amps. 
6.0 amps. 


For instance. 























































































188 


TIIE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


4. Insert vent plugs in the filler tubes. 

5. Put the battery on charge at the rate given in the second 
table on page 187. To determine the rate to use, see type name 
given on the battery nameplate and find correct rate in the table. 
Keep the battery charging at this rate throughout the charge. 

6. Continue the charge until the battery voltage and the spe¬ 
cific gravity of the electrolyte stop rising, as shown by readings 
taken every two hours. From three and one-half to four days 
of continuous charging will be required to fully charge the 
battery. 

7. Watch the temperature of the electrolyte, and do not allow 
it to rise above 105° Fahrenheit. If the temperature rises to 105°, 
stop the charge and allow battery to cool. Extend the time of 
charging by the length of time required for the battery to cool. 

8. After the specific gravity of the electrolyte stops rising, 
adjust the electrolyte to a specific gravity of 1.280 at a tem¬ 
perature of 80 degrees Fahrenheit. If the temperature is not 
80 degrees, make temperature corrections as described on page 
372. 

9. The battery is now ready to be installed on the car. Just 
before installing the battery, make a high rate discharge test 
on it. 


THE HIGH RATE DISCHARGE TEST. 

The high rate discharge test is a valuable aid in determining 
the condition of a battery, particularly where the hydrometer 
readings give false indications, Such as is the case when elec¬ 
trolyte or acid is added to a cell instead of water to replace 
evaporation. Only two or three per-cent of the battery capacity 
is consumed by the test, and it is not usually necessary to re- 
charge the battery after making the test. The test must be made 
in conjunction with hydrometer readings, as otherwise it might 
give false indications itself. Both incoming and outgoing bat¬ 
teries may be tested, and the method of testing depends upon 
whether the battery is coming in for repairs, or is going out 
after having been charged, repaired, or worked on in any way. 
In either case, the test consists of discharging the battery at a 


THE WORK SHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 189 


lii^li rate for a short time, and taking voltage readings and 
making observations while the battery is discharging 

Rates of Discharge. It is not necessary to have anv definitelv 
fixed discharge rate. The rate should merely be high enough to 
reveal any improperly burned joints, short-circuited cells, or 
cells low in capacity for any reason. For an eleven plate, six 
volt battery, about 200 amperes is a good rate to use, and 250-300 
amperes for the largest six volt batteries. For the average twelve 
volt battery, a rate of 100-125 amperes is about right. 

For an Incoming Battery. Take a hydrometer reading of each 
cell. If the readings are all below 1.200 and are within 50 points 
of each other, most likely all the battery needs is a bench charge, 
with a possible adjustment of the gravity of the electrolyte at 
the end of the charge. The discharge test should in this case be 
made after the battery has been fully charged. 

Tf the gravity readings are all above 1.200, or if the reading of 
one cell differs from the others by 50 points or more, make the 
discharge test. To do this, remove the battery from the car and 
attach the test-clips from the discharge rheostat to the terminals 
of the battery. Remove all the vent plugs or caps. Adjust the 
rheostat until the correct current is being drawn from the bat¬ 
tery. Look down through the filler tube at the electrolyte. If 
the electrolvte of any cell bubbles or foams, that cell is short- 
circuited. A short-circuited cell is usuallv badly discharged 
and sulphated. When current is forced through it, it heats and 
boils the electrolyte. 

Tf the cells do not bubble within fifteen seconds, read the 
voltage of each cell. If the cells are uniformly low in voltage; 
that is, below 1.5 volts per cell, the battery needs recharging. 
If the voltage readings of the cells differ by 0.10 volt or more 
and the battery is fairly well charged, there is something wrong 
in the cell having the low reading, and the battery should be 
opened and examined. With a discharged battery the difference 
in cell voltage will be greater, depending on the extent of the 
discharge, and only experience can guide in drawing correct 
conclusions. 

For Outgoing New, Charged, or Repaired Batteries. Just be¬ 
fore putting the battery into service, make the test as a check 


190 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


on the internal condition of the battery, particularly if the bat¬ 
tery has been repaired or has stood for sometime since being 
charged. (It is assumed that the battery has been charged and 
the gravity of the electrolyte properly adjusted when the test is 
made.) 

The battery should not show more than 0.10 volt difference 
between any two cells at the end of 15 seconds, and no cell 
should show a voltage less than 1.75 volts, and the voltage should 
remain fairly constant during the test. If every cell reads below 
1.75 volts, the battery has not been completely charged. If one 
cell is more than 0.10 volt lower than the others, or if its voltage 
falls off rapidly, that cell still needs repairs, or is insufficiently 
charged, or else the top connectors are not burned on properly. 
Top connectors which heat up during the test are not burned on 
properly. 


INSTALLING A BATTERY ON A CAR. 

A battery must be installed carefully on the car if it is to 

have any chance to give good service. Careless installation of a 

battery which is in good working order will invariably lead to 

trouble in a very short time. On the other hand, a properly 

installed battery is, nine times out of ten, a good working and 

long lived batterv. 

~ «/ 

After you have removed the old battery, scrape all rust and 
corrosion from the inside of the battery box or compartment in 
which the battery is placed. This can best be done with a putty 
knife and wire brush. If you find that electrolyte has been 
spilled in the box, pour a saturated solution of washing soda on 
the parts affected so as to neutralize the acid. Then wipe the 
inside of the box dry and paint it with a good acid proof paint. 

Next take out the hold down bolts. Clean them with a wire 
brush, and oil the threads on the bolt and in the nut to make 
them work easily. It is very important that this oiling is done, 
as the oil protects the bolts from corrosion, and to remove the 
nuts from a corroded bolt is an extremely difficult and aggra¬ 
vating piece of work, often resulting in the bolts being broken. 


THE WORK SHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 191 


Should such bolts become loose while the car is in use, it is 
hard to tighten them. 

Wooden strips found in the battery box should be thoroughly 
cleaned and scraped, and then painted with acid proof paint. 
When you lower the battery into its box, lower it all the way 
gently. Do not lower it within an inch or so of the bottom of 
the case and then drop it. This will result in broken jars and 
plate lugs. Turn the hold downs tight, but not so tight as to 
break the sealing compound at the ends of the battery, thereby 
causing electrolyte to leak out, and battery to become a “slop- 
per.” 

Cables and connectors should be scraped bright with a knife 
and brushed thoroughly with the wire brush to remove all cor¬ 
rosion. Old tape which has become acid soaked should be removed 
and the cable or wire underneath cleaned. Before applying new 
tape, take a small round bristle brush and paint vaseline lib¬ 
erally over the exposed cable immediately back of the taper 
terminal. Then cover the vaseline with tape, which should be 
run well back from the terminal. The vaseline prevents the 
corrosion of the cable and the tape holds the vaseline in place. 
After the tape has been applied, paint it with acid proof paint. 
Cover the exposed lead parts of the battery with vaseline. 
Cables must have enough slack to prevent strains from being 
put on the battery terminals. 

By following these directions, you will not only have a properly 
installed battery, which will have a good chance to give good 
service, but will have a neat looking job which is most pleasing 
to the eye of the car owner. 

Remove all dirt from the battery and cable terminals and 
thoroughly clean the surfaces which are to connect together, 
but do not scrape off the lead coating. Apply a heavy coating 
of pure vaseline to these surfaces and tighten the connection 
perfectly, scpieezing otit the vaseline. Then give the whole con¬ 
nection a heavy coating of vaseline. This is very important in 
order to prevent connection trouble. 

If battery is installed in an enclosing box, be sure that none 
of the ventilating holes are clogged. 



192 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


STORING BATTERIES WHICH HAVE BEEN IN SERVICE. 

Batteries which have been in service may be stored either 
“wet” or “dry.” 

A battery which is to be out of commission for more than a 
year should be put in “dry” storage. 

A battery which is to be out of commission for less than a 
year may be put into “wet” storage, providing it is in a con¬ 
dition that will not soon require dismantling anyway, in which 
case it should be put into dry storage. Dry storage requires no 
attention during the storage period. The battery must, however, 
be dismantled at the beginning and reassembled at the end of this 
period. 

The batteries are prepared for storage as described below: 

“Wet” Storage. 

1. Before putting the batteries in storage, give them a com¬ 
plete bench charge. See page 170. 

2. Store the batteries on a bench or shelf in a convenient 
location and large enough to allow a little air space around each 
battery. 

3. Place each battery upon wooden strips in order to keep the 
bottom of the battery clear of the bench or shelf. 

4. Apply vaseline freely to the battery terminals, and to ex¬ 
posed copper wires in the battery cables if the cables are burned 
directly to the batterv terminals. If the cables are not burned 
on, remove them from the battery. 

5. If convenient, install the necessary wiring, switches, etc., so 
that batteries may be connected up and charged where they 
stand. Otherwise the batteries must be charged occasionally on 
the charging bench. 

6. Batteries in Avet storage may be charged by the Exide 
“Trickle” charge method, or may be given a bench charge at 
regular intervals. 

7. Bench Charge Method.—Once every month, add distilled 
water to replace evaporation. Then give battery a bench charge. 
See page 170, Before putting battery into service repeat this. 


THE WORK SHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 193 


process and just before putting the battery into service, make the 
high rate discharge test on it. See page 188. 

8. Trickle Charge Method.—This consists of charging the bat¬ 
teries in storage continuously at a very low rate, which is so 
low that no gassing occurs, and still gives enough charge to 
maintain the batteries in good condition. In many cases the 
“Trickle Charge method will be found more convenient than 
the bench charge method, and it has the advantage of keeping 
the batteries in condition for putting into service on short no- 



Fig. 76 Batteries Connected Up For “Trickle” Charge 


tice. It should, however, be used only where direct current light¬ 
ing circuits are available. 

In the “Trickle’’ method, the batteries are first given a com¬ 
plete bench charge, and are then connected in series across a 
charging circuit with one or several incandescent, lamps in 
series with the batteries to limit the current. In Fig. 76, an 
example of connections for a “Trickle” charge is given. The 
charging current for different sized batteries varies from 0.05 
to 0.15 ampere. The following table gives the lamps required 
to give the desired current. 

In each case, the lamps are connected in series with the bat¬ 
teries. The “2-25 watt, (lamps), in parallel” listed in the 
table are to be connected in parallel with each other and then 


































194 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


in series with the batteries. The same is true of the “3-25 watt 
(lamps), in series” listed in the table. 


Amp. Hrs. 
Cacaplty 

5 Amp. Rate 

Approximate 

Amperes 

No. of 

Cells in 

Series 
on Line 

No. Lamps 

Required 


. 0.05. 

.3. 

.5-15 watt, in series 

5 O or less . 

. 0.05. 

.3 0. 

.2-15 watt, in series 

5 0 or less . 

. 0.05. 

.45. 


50 - 100.. 

.0.10. 

.3. 

.3-25 watt, in series 

50 - 100.. 

.0.10. 

.3 0. 

.1-25 watt, in series 

50 lOO. 

. 0.10. 

.4 5. 

. 2-2 5 watt, in parallel 

“1 DO or over.. 

. 0.15. 

.3. 


10 0 or OV 0 T. 

.0.15. 

.3 0. 

. 1-2 5 watt, in series 

1 DO or over . 

.0.1 5. 

.4 5. 

. 3-25 watt, in parallel 




Every two months interrupt the trickle charge long enough 
to add water to bring the electrolyte up to the proper level. 
When this has been done, continue the trickle charge. 

Before putting the batteries into service, see that the elec¬ 
trolyte is up to the correct level, and that the specific gravity 
of the electrode is 1.280-1.300. If necessary, give a short 
charge on the charging bench to bring the specific gravity up to 
the correct value. 


Dry Storage. 

1. If the battery has been in service for any length of time, 
open it up and examine the plates carefully, as described on page 
260, to make sure that the plates are worth storing. If they are, 
clear up any short circuits which may exist. Before opening the 
battery make a sketch of the top connections on a tag. 

2. Give the battery a complete bench charge, but do not 
adjust the specific gravity of the electrolyte at the end of the 
charge. To give this charge, it will be necessary to make tem¬ 
porary connections between cells by replacing the connectors and 
terminals and tapping them into place so as to obtain a good 
contact. 

3. Pour out the electrolyte, and separate the groups. If the 
negatives have bulged active material, press them in the plate 
press. In batteries such as the Prest-O-Lite in which it is diffi¬ 
cult to remove the plates from the cover, the groups need not 






































THE WORK SHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 195 


be separated unless the negatives have badly bulged active ma¬ 
terial. It may not be necessary to separate the groups even 
then, provided that the positives are not buckled to any noticea¬ 
ble extent. If only a very slight amount of buckling exists, the 
entire element may be pressed by putting thin boards between 
the plates in place of the separators. 

4. Immerse the negatives and positives in distilled water for 
ten to twelve hours. If positives and negatives cannot be sep¬ 
arated, immerse each complete element in the water. 

5. Remove plates from water and allow them to drain thor¬ 
oughly and dry. The negatives will heat up when exposed to 
the air, and when they do so they should be immersed in the 
water again to cool them. Repeat this as long as they tend to 
heat up. Then alloAv them to dry thoroughly. 

6. Throw away the old separators. Rubber separators may 
be saved if in good condition. Clean the covers and terminals, 
wash out the jars, and turn the case up side down to drain out 
the water. 

7. "When the plates are perfectly dry, nest the positives and 
negatives together and replace them in the jars in their proper 
positions. 

8. Replace the covers and vent plugs, but, of course, do not 
use any sealing compound on them. 

9. Tie the terminals and top connectors to the handle on the 
case with a wire. 

10. Tag the battery with the owner’s name and address, 
using the tag on which you made the sketch of the arrangement 
of the terminals and top connections. 

11. Store the battery in a dry place, free from dust, until 
called for. 

12. When the battery is to be put into service again, put in 
new separators, put the elements in the jars, seal the covers, 
and burn on the top connectors and terminals (if these are of 
the burned-on type). Fill the cells with electrolyte of about 
1.310 specific gravity and allow the battery to stand for ten to 
twelve hours in order to cool. Then put the battery on charge 
at one-half the normal charging rate and charge until the spe¬ 
cific gravity of the electrolyte stops rising and remains station- 




196 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


ary for five hours. The total time required for this develop¬ 
ment charge will be about four days. Watch the temperature 
of the electrolyte carefully, and if it should rise to 105° Fahren¬ 
heit, stop the charge until it cools. 

13. The specific gravity will fall during the first part of the 
charge, due to the new separators; at the end of the charge, the 
specific gravity should be 1.280-1.300. If it is not within these 
limits, adjust it by withdrawing some electrolyte with the hy¬ 
drometer and adding water if the gravity is high, or 1.400 elec¬ 
trolyte if the gravity is low. 

14. Just before putting the battery into service, give it a 
high rate discharge test. See page 188. 

HANDLING AND MIXING ACID. 

The electrolyte used in the batterv is made by mixing chem- 
ically pure concentrated Sulphuric Acid with chemically pure 
water. The concentrated acid, or “full strength” acid cannot 
be used, not only because it would destroy the plates, but also 
because water is needed for the chemical actions which take 
place as a cell charges and discharges. The water therefore 
serves, not only to dilute the acid, but also to make possible the 
chemical reactions of charge and discharge. 

The full strength acid has a specific gravity of 1.835, and is 
mixed with the water to obtain the lower specific gravity which 
is necessary in the battery. The simplest scheme is to use only 
1.400 specific gravity acid. This acid is used in adjusting the 
specific gravity of a battery on charge in case the specific gravity 
fails to rise to a high enough value. It is also used in filling bat¬ 
teries that have been repaired. 

Acid is received from the manufacturer in ten gallon glass 
bottles enclosed in wooden boxes, these being called “carboys.” 
Distilled water comes in similar bottles. When distilled in the 
shop, the water should be collected in bottles also, although 
smaller ones may be used. 

Neither the acid nor the water should ever be placed in any 
vessels but those made of lead, glass, porcelain, rubber, or glazed 
earthenware. Lead cups, tanks, and funnels may be used in 


THE WORK SHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 197 


handling electrolyte, but the electrolyte must not be put in con¬ 
tainers made of any metal except lead. Lead is rather expensive 
for making such containers, and the glass bottles, porcelain, rub¬ 
ber, or glazed earthenware may be used. 

In mixing acid with water, pour the water in the bottle, pitcher, 
or jar, and then add the acid to the water very slowly. Do not 
pour the acid in quickly, as the mixture will become very hot, 
and may throw spray in your face and eyes and cause severe 
burns. Never add the water to the acid, as this might cause an 

A CHEAP METHOD OF DRAWING 
ACID FROM OAR BOV 



explosion and burn your face and eyes seriously. Stir the mix¬ 
ture thoroughly with a wooden paddle while adding the acid. A 
graduate, such as is used in photography, is very useful in meas¬ 
uring out the quantities of acid and water. The graduate may be 
obtained in any size up to 64 ounces, or two quarts. In using the 
graduate for measuring both acid and water, be sure to use the 
following table giving the parts of water by volume. Although 
the graduate is marked in ounces, it is for ounces of water onl\. 
If, for instance, the graduate were filled to the 8 ounce mark with 





















198 


TILE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


acid, there would be more than eight ounces of acid in the grad¬ 
uate because the acid is heavier than the water. But if the pro¬ 
portions of acid and water are taken by volume, the graduate may 
be used. 

A convenient method in making up electrolyte, is to have a 
16 ounce graduate for the acid, and a 32 or 64 ounce graduate 
for the water. In the larger graduate pour the water up to 
the correct mark. In the 16 ounce graduate, pour 1.400 acid up 
to the 10 ounce mark. Then add the acid directly to the water 
in the graduate, or else pour the water into a bottle or pitcher, 
and add the acid to that. For instance, if we have a 32 ounce 
graduate, and wish to make up some 1.280 acid, we fill this 
graduate with water up to the 5^2 ounce mark. AVe then 
fill the 16 ounce graduate with 1.400 acid up to the 10 ounce 
mark. Then we slowly pour the 1.400 acid into the graduate 
containing the water, giving us 1.280 acid. In a similar man¬ 
ner other specific gravities are obtained, using the same amount 
of 1.400 acid in each case, but varying the amount of water 

according to the figures given in the 
middle column of the next to the last 
table. 

Figs. 77, 78 and 79 show three meth¬ 
ods of handling acid or distilled water. 
Fig. 77 shows the simplest method. 
Cut two half round pieces of wood, 
using a radius which is half the height 
of the wooden case in which the bottle 
is placed. Screw these on the side of 
the case. These will act as rockers 
for tipping the bottle when emptying. 

Fig. 78 shows a simple siphon ar¬ 
rangement. A is the bottle, B a rub¬ 
ber stopper, C and D glass, hard rubber, 
or lead tubes, E a rubber tube having a 
pinch clamp at the lower end. To use, 
the stopper and tubes are inserted in 
the bottle, and air blown in at C while 

































































































THE WORK SHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 199 


the pinch clamp is open, until the tube E is full. The pinch 
clamp is then released. Whenever the liquid is to be drawn 
from the bottle, the pinch clamp is pressed, so as to release the 
pressure on the tube. The liquid will flow automatically down 

COMPRESSED AIR SYPHON PUMP 
FOP EMPTYING ELECTROLYTE CARBOYS 



the tube E as long as the clamp is open. To stop the flow release 
the clamp so as to close the tube. 

The' clamp may be made of flat or round spring brass or 
bronze. This is bent round at (a). At (c) an opening is made 
through which the part (b) is bent. The clamp is operated by 
pressing at (d) and (e). The rubber tube is passed through 
the opening between (b) and (c). 

Fig. 79 shows a similar arrangement, except that an air foot 
pump is used to force out the liquid. To operate, the finger is 
placed over the opening at D and the pressure is applied. The 
liquid will flow o'ut as long as the pressure is applied and the 
finger held at D. To stop the flow, the finger is lifted, thus re¬ 
leasing the pressure. 































































200 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


The folloAving table shows the number of parts of distilled 
water to one part of 1.400 specific gravity electrolyte to pre¬ 
pare electrolyte of various specific gravities. The specific gravit} r 
of the mixture must be taken when the temperature of the mix¬ 
ture is 70° F. If its temperature varies more than 5 degrees 
above or below 70° F, make the corrections described On page 90 
to find what the specific gravity would be if the temperature were 
70° F. 


BY WEIGHT. 


For 1.300 specific gravity use 5 ounces of distilled water for each 
pound of 1.400 electrolyte. 

For 1.280 specific gravity use 6 1 /*) ounces of distilled water for 
each pound of 1.400 electrolyte. 

For 1.275 specific gravity use 6% ounces distilled wafer for each 
pound of 1.400 electrolyte. 

For 1.260 specific gravity use 7 1 / 5 ounces distilled water for each 
pound of 1.400 electrolyte. 


BY VOLUME. 

For 1.300 specific gravity use 3y 2 pints distilled water for each 
gallon of 1.400 electrolyte. 

For 1.280 specific gravity use 4 1 /o pints distilled water for each 
gallon of 1.400 electrolyte. 

For 1.275 specific gravity use 5 pints distilled water for each 
gallon of 1.400 electrolyte. 

For 1.260 specific gravity use 5*4 pints distilled water for each 
gallon of 1.400 electrolvtfe. 

In case you wish to'use' other measuring units than those given 


in the above table, this table may be written as follows, giving 
the number of parts distilled water to 10 parts of 1.400 specific 


gravity electrolyte: 
Specific Gravity’ 

Parts by 

Parts by 

Desired 

Weight 

Volume 

1.300:. 

.3 . 

.i 

1.280.’.::.., 

.4 . 


1.275/. 

.4 . 

..6 

1.260. 

.4 7-10. 

....61/2 










THE WORK SHOP. 


GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 


201 


The next table gives the number of parts of distilled water to 
10 parts of concentrated sulphuric acid (which has a specific 
gravity of 1.835) to prepare electrolyte of various specific grav¬ 
ities : 

Specific Gravity Parts by 

Desired Weight 

1.400. 8 y 2 . 

1.300..13 y 2 . 

1.280.,.15 . 

1.275.16 . 

1.260.;.17 . 

TAGGING BATTERIES. 

Every battery concern has its system of marking and tagging 
batteries, usually a card system or books for making records of 
the work. Some of these systems are complicated and confusing. 
Make your system as simple as possible, but have it complete. 
Then stick to it, and keep it in an orderly, businesslike way. 
There are a few essential items that must be recorded correctlv, 
or your whole svstem will be confusing and worthless. When 
a battery comes in, and before the driver or owner leaves, be sure 
that you have recorded the following information: 

1. The owner's name, address, and telephone number if he 
has one. 

2. What is to be done with the battery—charged, repaired, or 
rebuilt. 

3. What the trouble with the battery is (dead cell, box eaten 
by acid, cracked jar, loose top connectors, broken sealing com¬ 
pound, etc.), and what caused it (trouble in starting, lighting 
or charging circuits; neglect on part of owner; driver left switch 
on, etc). 

Fill out all these items on the tag, and attach the tag to the 
handle near the negative battery terminal. Then record the job 
in a book kept for that purpose, or save the tag as^ a record. 
A good plan is also to mark with chalk on the battery box what 


Parts by 
Volume 

..15 8-10 
. .25 
. .27 
. .28 
. .30 













202 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


the trouble is and what is to be done, such as, l.D.C. for “one 
dead cell,” R.S. for “reseal,” R.B. for “rebuilt,” etc. 

You are now ready to make repairs, charge the battery or 
open and rebuild it, as the case may be. 

Fig. 80 shows the front and back side of a charging or repair 
tag. Fig. 81 shows a set of pigeon holes for tags alphabet¬ 
ically arranged. The top row is for charging or repair tags 



A "y pnss ED 

Battery |\]^ ^aled 


Itemized Cost 

Rechar&m£ .Plates 

Electrolyte....Jars... 

Separators.Case 

Compound . Misc’l 

Time.... 

Total.... 



The Auto Battery Specialists 

70b 

Jackson St 
Topeka 

Serial No_ 

Owner.. 

Address. 

Serial No.Date 

Owner . 

Address. 

Phone . 

Battery Type. 


Phone 

818 

Date.. 


Fig. 80 Two Sides of Repair Tag 


for owners whose names begin with A to G. The next row is for 
rent tags for owners whose names begin with A to G. The third 
row is for charging or repair tags for owners whose names begin 
with H to N. The fourth row is for rent tags for owners whose 
names begin with H to N. The other rows are similarly arranged 
in pairs, one of a pair for charging or repair tags, and the other 
for rent tags. Unused tags should be kept on hooks near the 
pigeon holes, as shown in Fig. 81. The top edge of the rows 






































THE WORK SHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 203 


for the rent tags should 
be painted the same 
color as the rent tags. 
One side of the tag, Fig. 
80, permits you to keep 
a correct account of 
material used, trouble 
with battery and what 
to do with it, and has 
a space for a battery 
d : agram, so that you 
can place position of 
terminals and date 
mark on it. A sample 
drawing is shown. This 
tag is perforated across the center. The upper part is tied to the 
handle near the negative terminal, and the lower part is kept 

in the proper compartment of the set of 
pigeon holes shown in Fig. 81. 

Your rent tags should be green, red, 
blue, or some color different from the 
charging tag. Fig. 82. A good way to 
keep aluminum or lead rent tags is on 
10 hooks. Tags 1, 11, 21, 31, etc., should 
go on hook No. 1; 2, 12, 22, 32, etc., on 
hook No. 2; 3, 13, 23, 33, etc., on hook 
No. 3. The last figure of a number goes 
on the corresponding hook number. If 
you use aluminum or lead tags, you are 
almost compelled to have a registering 
book to keep track of the numbers, un¬ 
less you have them in pairs, two of a 
kind, and hang on racks as above. 

Another plan is to have one set of 
numbered aluminum or lead tags, and 
attach a tag on each battery. Then 
number the paper tags shown in Figs. 80 and 82, and put these 
in the pigeon holes shown in Fig. 81. 



The Auto Battery Specialists 

70 © Phone 

JdcKson St. 

diS 

TopeKa 

Perrhil Checks No. 

Battery N . 

Date. 


Serial_Battery_ 

Name_ 

Address_ 

Out _In__ 

Time_Charges_ 


Fig. 82. Rental Tag 



Fig. 81. Pigeon Holes For Tags 


























204 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 

INSTRUCTIONS FOR PACKING BATTERIES FOR SHIPPING. 

4 

1st. The case should be built of strong lumber (1% inch pre¬ 
ferably), and of ample size to allow packing with excelsior top, 



bottom, sides and ends to a thickness of two or three inches. 
Nail strongly. 

2nd. When the case is complete (except cover), place a thick, 
even layer of excelsior (or packing straw) in the bottom and set 




in the battery right side up. Lay paper (preferably paraffined) 
over top of battery to keep it clean, then pack tightly with ex¬ 
celsior sides and ends. 

3rd. Now lay sufficient packing material on top of the bat¬ 
tery so that cover will compress it tightly, stuffing it under cover 
boards as they are put on. 

The extended boards at bottom, and the gable roof are pro- 






















































































THE WORK SHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 205 


vided to prevent the battery from being tipped over; extensions 
of sides for carrying. 

Box should be plainly labeled: “HANDLE WITH CARE. 
Damages claimed if tipped on side.” 

In addition to the address of destination, as given in shipping 
instructions, be sure to mark with name of shipper for identifica¬ 
tion upon arrival. 

'W hen shipping by freight, the proper freight classification in 
the United States is “Electric Storage Batteries, Assembled.” 

When shipping by express in the United States, “Acid” cau¬ 
tion labels must be attached to each package. 

THE CADMIUM TEST. 

i 

As the cell voltage falls while the battery is on discharge, the 
voltage of the positive plates, and also the voltage of the nega¬ 
tive plates falls. When the battery is charged again the voltage 
of both positive and negative plates rises. If a battery gives 
its rated ampere-hour capacity on discharge, we do not care 
particularly how the voltage of the individual positive and neg¬ 
ative groups change. If, however, the battery fails to give its 
rated capacity, the fault may be due to defective positives or 
defective negatives. 

If the voltage of a battery fails to come up when the battery 
is put on charge, the trouble may be due to either the positives 
or negatives. Positives and negatives may not charge at the same 
rate, and one group may become fully charged before the other 
group. This may be the case in a cell which has had a new 
positive group put in with the old negatives. Cadmium tests 
made while the battery is on charge will tell how fully the indi¬ 
vidual groups are charged. 

Since the voltages of the positives and negatives both fall as 
a battery is discharged, and rise as the battery is charged, if 
we measure the voltage of the positives and negatives separately, 
we can tell how far each group is charged or discharged. If the 
voltage of each cell of a battery drops to 1.8 before the battery 
has given its rated capacity, we can tell which set of plates 



206 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


has become discharged by measuring the voltage of positives and 
negatives separately. If the voltage of the positives show that 
they are discharged, then the positives are not up to capacity. 
Similarly, negatives are not up to capacity if their voltage indi¬ 
cates that they are discharged before the battery has given its 
rated capacity. 


How Cadmium Tests Are Made. 

To measure the voltage of the positives and negatives sep¬ 
arately, Cadmium is used. The Cadmium is dipped in the elec¬ 
trolyte, and a voltage reading taken between the Cadmium and 



MAKING CADMIUM TEST ON NEGATIVE PLATES 

Fig. 87 


the plates which are to be tested. Thus, if we wish to test the 
negatives, we take a voltage reading between the Cadmium 
and the negatives, as shown in Fig. 87. Similarly, if we wish to 
test the positives, we take a voltage reading between the Cad¬ 
mium and the positives, as shown in Fig. 88. 

In dipping the Cadmium into the electrolyte, we make two 
cells out of the battery cell. One of these consists of the Cad¬ 
mium and the positives, while the other consists of the Cad¬ 
mium and the negatives. If the battery is charged, the Cadmium 
forms the negative in the Cadmium-Positives cell, and is the 
positive in the Cadmium-Negatives cell The voltage of the Cad- 























THE WORK SHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 207 


mium does not change and since we know, from experiment, just 
what the Cadmium-Positives, and the Cadmium Negatives volt¬ 
ages are for a charged and a discharged battery, if we do not 
get these voltages, the trouble lies in either the Positives or 
Negatives. 

What Cadmium Is: Cadmium is a metal, just like iron, cop¬ 
per, or lead. It is one of the chemical elements; that is, it is a 
separate and distinct substance. It is not made by mixing two 
or more substances, as for instance, solder is made by mixing 
tin and lead, but is obtained by separating the cadmium from 
the compounds in which it is found in nature, just as iron is 

obtained bv treatment of iron ore in the steel mill. 

•/ 



^MAKING CADMIUM TEST ON POSITIVE PLATES 

Fig. 88 


When Cadmium Readings Should Be Made. 

1. When the battery voltage drops to 1.8 per cell on discharge 
before the battery has delivered its rated ampere-hour capacity, 
when discharged at a current which is equal to one-eighth of its 
ampere-hour capacity. 

2. If a battery comes into the shop with its specific gravity 
below 1.150, put the battery on discharge at one-eighth of its 
ampere-hour capacity and take cadmium readings. If the nega¬ 
tives give a reading much greater than .175 volt in the same 
direction from the “0” line of the voltmeter, as the positives do, 





















208 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


and the positives give a reading much less than 2.0 volts, it is 
fairly safe to open the battery for inspection. These readings 
are marked on the AMBU Cadmium Voltmeter by the red lines 
marked “Neg. Discharged” (Fig. 92), and “Pos. Discharged” 
(Fig. 94), respectively. 

3. When a battery on charge will not “come up,” that is, if 
its voltage will not come up to 2.6 per cell on charge, and its 
specific gravity will not come ‘up to 1.280-1.300. 

4. Whenever } r ou charge a battery, at the end of the charge, 
when the voltage and specific gravity no longer rise, make cad¬ 
mium tests to be sure that both positives and negatives are 
fully charged. 

5. When you put in a new group, charge the battery fully 
and make cadmium tests to be sure that the new group is fully 
charged. 

Remember. 

That Cadmium Readings should be taken only while a battery 
is in action; that is, while it is on discharge, or while it is on 
charge. 

Cadmium Readings taken on a battery which is on open cir¬ 
cuit are not reliable. 

When You Are Not Using the Cadmium, It Should Be Put 
in a Vessel of Water and Kept There. Never Let the Cad¬ 
mium Become Dry, as It Will Then Give Unreliable Readings. 

Open Circuit Voltage Readings Worthless. 

Voltage readings of a battery taken while the battery is on 
open circuit, that is, when no current is passing through the 
battery, are not reliable. The voltage of a normal, fully charged 
cell on open circuit is slightly over 2 volts. If this cell is given 
a full normal discharge, so that the specific gravity of its electro¬ 
lyte drops to 1.150, and is allowed to stand for several hours 
after the end of the discharge, the open circuit voltage will 
still be 2 volts. Open circuit voltage readings are therefore of 
little or no value, except only when a cell is “dead,” as a dead 
cell will give an open circuit voltage very much less than 2, and 
it may even give no voltage at all. 


THE WORK SHOP. 


GENERAL 


INSTRUCTIONS 


209 


What the Cadmium Tester Consists Of. 

The Cadmium Tester consists of a voltmeter, Fig. 89, and two 
pointed brass prods which are fastened in wooden handles, as 
shown in Fig. 90. A length of flexible wire having a terminal 
at one end is soldered to each prod for attachment to the volt¬ 
meter. Fastened at right angles to one of the brass prods is a 
rod of pure cadmium. 

Cadmium tests may be made with any accurate voltmeter 



Fig. 89. Special Cadmium 
Test Voltmeter 



Fig. 90. Cadmium 
Test Leads 






which gives readings 'up to 2.5 volts in divisions of .05 volt. 

The instructions given below apply especially to the special 
AMBU voltmeter but these instructions may also be used in 
making cadmium tests with any voltmeter that will give the 
correct reading. 


The AMBU Cadmium Voltmeter. 

Fig. 89 is a view of the special AMBU Voltmeter which is 
designed to be used specially in making Cadmium tests. Fig. 
90 shows the Cadmium leads. The four red lines marked “Neg. 
Charged,” “Neg\ Discharged,” “Pos. Charged,” and “Pos. 
Discharged,” indicate the readings that should be obtained. 
Thus, in testing the positives of a battery on charge, the pointer 
will move to the line which is marked ‘‘Pos. Charged,” if the 


















210 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


positive plates are fully charged. In testing the negatives, the 
pointer will move to the line marked “Neg. Charged,” which is 
to the left of the “0” line, if the negatives are fully charged, 
and so on. Eigs. 91, 92, 93, and 94 show the pointer in the 


SHOWING READING OBTAINED 
WHEN TESTING CHARGED NEGATIVE 



SHOWING READING OBTAINED 
WHEN TESTING DISCHARGED NEGATIVES 



four positions on the scale which it takes when testing fully 
charged or discharged plates. In each figure the pointer is 
over one of the red lines on the scale. These figures also show 
the readings, in volts, obtained in making the cadmium tests 
on fully charged or completely discharged plates. 








THE WORK SHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 211 


If Pointer Is Not Over the “0” Line: It sometimes happens, 
in shipping the instrument, and also in the use of it, that the 
pointer does not stand over the “0” line, but is a short dis¬ 
tance away. Should you find this to be the case, take a small 


showing reading obtained 
WHEN TESTING CHARGED POSITIVES 



SHOWING READING OBTAINED 
WHEN TESTING DISCHARGED POSITIVES 



screw-driver and turn the screw which projects through the 
case, and which is marked “Correct Zero," so as to bring the 
pointer exactly over the “0” line on the scale while the meter 
has no wires connected to its binding posts. 

Connections of Cadmium Leads: In making Cadmium Tests, 









212 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


connect the prod which has the cadmium, fastened to it to the 
negative voltmeter binding post. Connect the plain brass prod 
to the positive voltmeter binding post. The connections to the 
AMBU Cadmium Voltmeter are shown in Fig. 95. 

Testing a Discharged Battery. 

The battery should be discharging continuously, the dis¬ 
charge current being equal to one-eighth of the ampere hour 



capacity of the battery. For an 80 ampere-hour battery, this 
current will be 10 amperes. Take a reading of the voltage of 
each complete cell. This may be done by holding the ends of 
the brass prods on the negative and positive terminals of each 
cell, as shown in Fig. 96. The discharge should be continued 
until the voltage of each cell has dropped to 1.8 volts. Then, 
when the voltage has reached 1.8, make the Cadmium Test. 

To do this, remove the vent plug from each cell. Dip the end 














































THE WORK SHOP. 


GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 


213 


of the cadmium into the electrolyte of the first cell which you 
wish to test. Be careful not to allow the cadmium to touch 
the tops of the plates. Leave the cadmium in the electrolyte 
for several minutes before taking a reading. If this is not done, 
the readings will not be accurate. After several minutes hold 
the end of the plain brass prod on the positive terminal of the 
cell. This will test the positive plates. See Fig. 88. If the 
positive plates are discharged, the pointer will move to the red 
line on the scale which is marked “Pos. Discharged.” See 
Fig. 94. If you are using some other voltmeter, the positives 
are discharged if the pointer moves to the 2.0 volt line on the 
scale. 



MEASURING TOTAL CELL VOLTAGE 

Fig 96 


To test the negatives, leave the Cadmium in the electrolyte, 
and hold the end of the plain prod on the negative terminal 
of the cell, as shown in Fig. 87. If the negatives are discharged, 
the pointer will move to the red line on the scale which is 
marked “Neg. Discharged.” See Fig. 92. On an ordinary 
voltmeter, the pointer will move to the right of the “0 line 
so as to give a reading of 0.175 volt. Test each cell in this way. 

The test on a discharged battery as already explained is 
made where a battery has failed to deliver its lated ampeie- 
hour capacity when discharged at a rate equal to one-eighth 
of its ampere-hour capacity. The Cadmium test will show 
which grotip of plates has become discharged before the battery 


























214 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


has delivered its capacity. This test may also be made at any 
time on a battery which shows a voltage of 1.8 volts per cell 
when put on a discharge at the eight-hour rate. It will then 
show whether both positives and negatives are discharged. 

If, before a battery has given its rated ampere-hour capacity, 
the voltage of any cell should drop appreciably below, 1.8, the 
cadmium reading should be made to determine whether both 
positives and negatives shared in the excessive drop. If, for 
instance, the cell voltage had dropped to 1.5, the Cadmium test 
of the positives gave a reading of 2.0 and the Cadmium test of 
the negatives gave a reading of .5, it would be evident that the 
voltage of the negatives was dropping rapidly, and that the 
negatives lacked capacity. On the other hand, if yo'u found 
that the positive cadmium reading was about 1.67, while the 
negatives gave a reading of .175 volt, it would show r that the 
positives did not have enough capacity. On discharge, the dif¬ 
ference between the two cadmium readings should be the same 
as the cell voltage. 

Short Circuited Cells: In cases of short circuited cells, the 
voltage of the cell will be almost down to zero. The Cadmium 
readings would therefore be nearly zero also for both positives 
and negatives. Such a battery should be opened for inspection 
and repairs. 

Testing the Charged Battery. 

The Battery should be charging at the finishing rate. (This 
is usually stamped on the battery box.) Dip the cadmium in 
the electorlyte as before, and test the negatives by holding the 
plain prod on the negative post of the cell. See Fig. 87. Test 
the positives in a similar manner. See Fig. 88. The cell volt¬ 
age should also be measured. If the positives are fully charged, 
the positive cadmium reading will be such that the pointer will 
move to the red line marked “Pos. Charged.” See Fig. 93. If 
you are using an ordinary voltmeter, the meter will give a read¬ 
ing of from 2.35 to 2.42 volts. The negatives are then tested in 
a similar manner. The negative-cadmium reading on an ordin¬ 
ary voltmeter will be from .175 to .2 to the left of the “0” 


THE WORK SHOP. 


GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 



line; that is, the reading is a reversed one. If yon are using 
the special Ambn voltmeter, the pointer will move to the red 
line marked “Neg. Charged.” See Fig. 91. The cell voltage 
should be the sum of the positive-cadmium and the negative- 
cadmium readings. 

If the voltage of each cell will not come up to 2.5 to 2.6 volts 
on charge, or if the specific gravity will not rise to 1.280 or over, 
make the cadmium tests to determine whether both sets of plates, 
or one of them, give readings indicating that they are full}' 
charged. If the positives will not give a reading of at least 
2.35 volts, or if the negatives will not give a reversed reading 
of at least 0.1 volt, these plates lack capacity. If several charges 
and discharges of the battery will not cause the battery to 
“come up,” and give satisfactory cadmium readings, the de¬ 
fective plates should be replaced with new ones. 

Causes of Unsatisfactory Cadmium Readings. 


When Cadmium Readings Are Unsatisfactory. If the voltage 
of a battery falls to 1.8 volts per cell before the battery has 
delivered its rated ampere-hour capacity, and Cadmium tests 
show that either negatives or positives are discharged, the read¬ 
ings may be considered unsatisfactory, in that the plates which 
are then discharged lack capacity. Discharged negatives, when 
the cell voltage is 1.8 while being discharged, give a reading 
of .175 to .2 volts to the right of the “0” line on the voltmeter. 
If vou are using the Ambu Cadmium Voltmeter, the pointer will 
move to the red line marked “Neg. Discharged,” if the nega¬ 
tives are discharged. See Fig. 92. If the negatives give this 
reading before the battery has delivered its rated ampere-hour 
capacity, they lack capacity. 

Similarly, the positive-cadmium reading of 2.00 to 2.05 volts, 
indicating that the positives are discharged, is unsatisfactory 
if the reading is obtained before the battery has delivered its 
rated ampere-hour capacity while being discharged at the eight- 
hour rate. On the Ambu Cadmium Voltmeter, this reading is 
indicated by the red line marked “Pos. Discharged.” See Fig. 
94. 




216 


TI1E AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


With a battery on charge, the cadmium readings are unsatis- 
factory if the negatives do not give a reading of from .175 to .2 
volts to the left of the “0” line, and the positives a reading 
of 2.4 or more. On the Ambu Cadmium Voltmeter, the readings 
are unsatisfactory if the pointer does not move to the red lines 
marked “Neg. Charged” (Fig. 91) and “Pos. Charged” (Fig. 
93), respectively. 

Anything that will cause a loss of battery capacity will cause 
unsatisfactory cadmium readings. Some of these causes are: 

1. Plates Not Completely Formed. If the forming process has 
not been carried far enough, new plates will lack capacity. The 
remedy is to charge the battery at the 24 hour, or finishing rate 
until the cadmium readings will not go any higher, and until the 
specific gravity of the electrolyte stops rising, and then dis¬ 
charge the battery at the eight hour rate until the voltage per 
cell is 1.8. Note the time the battery is on discharge, and mul¬ 
tiply it by the discharge current. If this product is less than 
the ampere-ho'ur capacity of the battery, charge the battery' 
again. Repeat this charge and discharge until the battery gives 
its rated ampere-hour capacity. Plates which are stored dry 
need a long forming charge before they will give satisfactory 
Cadmium readings. 

2. Insufficient Amount of Active Material. For each ampere 
hour that a battery delivers, a certain amount of active material 
is used. If there is not enough active material on the plates, the 
battery cannot deliver its rated capacity by the time the voltage 
drops to 1.8 volts per cell. There is no remedy for this condi¬ 
tion except to reduce the ampere-hour rating of the battery or 
else put in new plates. 

This condition is usually found in old positives in which shed¬ 
ding has been going on. If the battery is otherwise in good 
condition it may be used as it is for some time, providing that 
the starter and lights are not used so much as to prevent the 
generator from keeping the battery charged. 

3. Lack of Porosity. If the plates have insufficient porosity, 
the acid of the lectrolyte is unable to diffuse into the plates fast 
enough to keep up the chemical actions which supply the elec¬ 
tricity. The battery will operate satisfactorily at low rates of 


217 


THE WORK SHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 


discharge, but at the eight-hour rate, the voltage per cell will 
fall to 1.8 before the battery will have delivered its rated am¬ 
pere-hour capacity. This condition may be distinguished from 
Lack of Active Material by the fact that the battery voltage 
will gradually rise to 2 volts per cell if the battery is allowed 
to stand on open circuit after the discharge. 

4. Plates Which Have Been Badly Sulphated Will Give Un¬ 
satisfactory Cadmium Readings. This is caused by discharging a 
battery so that its voltage on discharge drops below 1.8 per cell 
and then allowing the battery to stand on open circuit. An 
over discharge does no harm if the discharge is at high rates, 
such as obtained when using the starter, providing that the 
battery is charged immediately after the end of the discharge. 
Over discharge at low rates gives the sulphate time to crystal¬ 
lize, in which condition it is hard to charge back to active 
material. 

5. Impurities in Electrolyte. Impurities cause internal dis¬ 
charge, and the battery voltage will drop to 1.8 on discharge 
before the battery has delivered its rated ampere-hour capacity. 

6. Incorrect Mixture of Acid and Water in Electrolyte. It 
takes a certain mixture of s'ulphuric acid and water to enable 
a battery to work properly. If the amount of acid is insufficient, 
the voltage on discharge will drop below 1.8 per cell before the 
battery has delivered its rated ampere hour capacity. 

If there is too much acid in the electrolyte, over-sulphation, 
corrosion, and changing of the spongy lead to ordinary lead take 
place. This is a common cause of unsatisfactory negative-cad¬ 
mium readings. 

7. Granulated Negatives. This is a natural result of the 
ageing of negatives, and there is no remedy but to put in new 
negatives. In rebuilt batteries which have had new positives, 
put in with the old negatives, this condition will be found, as 
the negatives will gradually become granulated and cannot then 
give good cadmium readings. 

8. If a battery delivers its rated capacity and the cadmium 
tests of either positives or negatives show that they are not dis¬ 
charged, there is nothing to worry about. Similarly, if the read¬ 
ings when the battery is charged are higher than those usually 



218 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


considered correct, namely .175 volt reversed for the negatives, 
and 2.4 volts to the right of the “0" line on the voltmeter for 
the positives, no trouble is indicated. This condition is caused 
by the design of the plates. 

Points to Remember. 

Remember that current must be passing through the battery 
when you make the cadmium tests. The temperature of the 
electrolyte should be about 70° F. when cadmium tests are made, 
if the most accurate results are desired. 

Do not scrape off the coating of sulphate which forms on the 
cadmium. 

Do not allow the cadmium to become dry after you have made 
tests with it. Keep the cadmium immersed in a glass of pure 
distilled water, or dilute electrolyte. 

Be sure to get good contact when you hold the prod on the 
battery terminal. Bear down on the handle so that the point 
of the prod digs down into the terminal. 

If both positive-to-cadmium and negative-to-cadmium readings 
are very nearly zero, the cell is short circuited and must be in¬ 
spected for excessive sediment, or defective separators. 

The end of the cadmium rod must not be allowed to touch 
the tops of either set of plates, as this would give worthless 
readings. 

Cadmium readings vary with the rate of charge or discharge, 
and if you wish to compare readings taken at different times 
on the same battery, use the same rates of charge or discharge 
in the various tests. 

PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN BY THE REPAIRMAN. 

1. Do not work on an empty stomach—you can then absorb 
lead easily. 

2. Keep your fingers out of your mouth when at work. 

3. Keep your finger nails short and clean. 

4. Do not chew tobacco while at work. In handling tobacco, 
the lead oxides are carried to your mouth. Chewing tobacco 
does not prevent you from swallowing lead. 


TIIE WORK SHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 210 


5. When you leave the shop at night, and before eatiug, wash 
your face, hands, and arms with soap, and clean your nose, 
mouth, and finger nails. 

6. Do not eat in the repair shop. 

7. Drink plenty of good milk. It prevents lead poisoning. 

8. Use Epsom Salts when constipated. This is very important. 

9. Bathe frequently to prevent lead poisoning. 

10. Leave your working clothes in the shop. 

11. It is better not to wear a beard or mustache. Keep your 
hair covered with a cap. 

12. Before sweeping the shop dampen the floor to keep down 
the dust. 

13. Do not drink beer or whisky, or any other alcholic liquors. 
These weaken your system and make you more susceptible to 
lead poisoning. 

14. In handling lead, wear gloves as much as possible, and 
wash and dry the gloves every day that you wear them. 

15. Wear goggles to keep lead and acid out of your eyes. 

16. When melting lead in a hydrogen flame, as in burning on 
the top connectors, the fumes given off may he blown away by 
a stream of air. The air supply.to the flame may be tapped for 
this purpose. 

17. The symptoms of lead poisoning are: gums darken or be¬ 
come blue, indigestion, colic, constipation, loss of appetite, mus¬ 
cular pain. In the later stages there is muscular weakness and 
paralysis. The hands become limp and useless. 

18. Wear rubber shoes or boots. Leather shoes should be 
painted with a hot mixture of equal parts of paraffine and bees¬ 
wax. 

19. Wear woolen clothes if possible. Cotton clothing should 
be dipped in a strong solution of washing soda and dried. AVear 
a flannel apron covered with sacking. 

20. Keep a bottle of strong ammonia handy. If you should 
spill acid on your clothes, apply some of the ammonia imme- 
diatelv to neutralize the acid, which will otherwise burn a hole 

in your clothes. 

•/ 

21. Keep a stone, earthenware, or porcelain jar filled with a 
solution of washing soda or bicarbonate of soda. Rinse your 




220 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


hands in this solution occasionally to prevent the acid from irri¬ 
tating them. 

22. If yon should splash acid in your eye, wash it out imme¬ 
diately with warm water, and drop olive oil on the eye. If you 
have no olive oil at hand, do not wait to get some, but use any 
lubricating oil, or vaseline. 


CHAPTER 14. 


DETERMINATION OF THE CONDITION OF THE 

BATTERY. 

What is the Trouble? 

With some batterymen it is a case of “blind leading the blind,” 
when a man brings his car to the shop. Generally, the car owner 
only knows that his lights are dim, or his starting motor will 
not crank the engine; he does not know what is wrong, and 
usually does not care particularly. He wants you to make his 
lights and starter work properly, and the sooner you do it, the 
better satisfied he will be, and the greater the probability of his 
comipg back to you the next time he has trouble. 

“What is the Trouble?” That is what you must determine at 
once, and tell the car owner how soon he may again have his 
battery. lie may have a long tale of woe and may think he 
knoAvs just A\ T hat is wrong and Avhat must be done, and say that 
he merely brought the car to you because he lacks the proper 
tools and equipment. Tf you go ahead entirely on the strength 
of what the car owner tells you, unless you are well acquainted 
with him and know that he has a better knowledge of electricity 
than you have and has made a thorough study of his car, you 
are in the position of one blind man being led by another. 

If you run your battery repair business on such a basis, you are 
bound to be a flat failure. For the sake of your success, self- 
satisfaction and peace of mind, do not let the car owner be the 
master of the situation. You have a head on your shoulders 
which you should use. You are the expert, and it is up to you 
to make a quick, accurate analysis of the situation and decide 
Avhat the remedy is. You would not think of going 1 to a doctor 
Avhen A r ou feel ill and telling him you ha\ r e such and such a 

221 



222 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


trouble, that you wanted a certain medicine to cure it, and that 
you were merely coming to him because you needed his official 
prescription in order to get the medicine at the drug store. If 
any doctor allowed you to do this, you would have a feeling of 
dissatisfaction with him because he allowed you to make the diag¬ 
nosis when, because of his special training and experience, he 
should be able to make it himself, and do it better and more 
quickly. You like to have him listen to wliat you think is wrong 
with yourself, but not to be guided entirely by your opinions. 
If he does not examine you himself, and ask you questions that 
show he is analyzing your condition carefull} r , you will go away 
dissatisfied, and your anxiety about your pains will not be re¬ 
lieved. Most likely, you will go to another doctor who will not 
let your talk influence him too much in his diagnosis and pre¬ 
scription. 

When a car is brought to your shop, you are the doctor. Some 
part of the mechanism is in trouble, and it is your duty to put 
yourself in charge of the situation. Examine and test the bat¬ 
tery carefully. Listen to what the driver or car owner has to 
say. It will probably give you a clue to the trouble. Question 
him so as to establish certain points in your mind. Then decide 
for yourself what must be done, and tell the man who brought 
the car or battery what repairs you consider necessary, regard¬ 
less of whether he thinks you are right or not. If he disagrees, 
explain to him clearly and courteously what you think must be 
done, and if you show that you have been careful in your analy¬ 
sis, he will think more of you for insisting on certain repairs. 

It is just as disastrous if you go too far in doing your own 
thinking. If you have any hopes of being successful in your 
business, do not assume such air of superiority that says, “I 
know it all," and shows a contempt for the knowledge of the 
owner or driver. If you are told that the lights won’t work, 
turn on the lighting switch to see if they will. If the driver 
says that the starter won’t crank the engine, try it. Listen 
attentively and courteously to what the owner has to sav. Disre- 
garding his story entirely will most likely make him angry, and 
he may never return to your shop. 

What the owner wants to know is how much the repairs will 


DETERMINATION OF CONDITION OF BATTERY 223 


cost, and when he can have his battery again. The following 
directions will enable yon to decide what must be done. Esti¬ 
mate carefully, if possible, what the work will cost. If a con¬ 
siderable amount of work is required, and you cannot tell how 
much time and material will be needed, tell the owner you will 
let him know the approximate cost later, when you have gone 
far enough to be able to make an estimate. 

If the owner cannot leave his car, take off the battery and 
put a “renter” in its place until the repairs are completed. 

The first thing to do, therefore, when a car comes to your shop 
is to greet the driver courteously and ask him what the trouble 
seems to be. He certainly has noticed that something is wrong 
with the electrical system of his car, or he would not have 
brought the car to you. Generally the driver complains that his 
lights burn dimly, or that the motor will not start his engine, 
or else turns the engine over very slowly. Dim lights usually 
come first, that is, a battery which will not give bright lights 
will operate the starter satisfactorily. A drop in battery vol¬ 
tage which will give dim lights may not cause failure to start. 
The immediate trouble which caused the owner to send the car 
to you may, of course, be due to one or more conditions which 
you can discover by merely making an inspection of the battery, 
or which may be more difficult to determine. It is best, there¬ 
fore, to go at each car in the same way, making the same tests 
and inspections, but always bearing in mind the trouble which 
the driver has described. You will be able to analyze the condi¬ 
tions you find more clearly. If, for instance, there is starter 
trouble, and you find that there is a loose connector between two 
cells, you will know, when you find the loose connector, that 
you have probably discovered the cause of the trouble. Do not, 
however, be satisfied with merely reburning the joints between 
the connectors and the posts. Make other tests to determine 
what the exact condition of the battery is in other respects. 
One trouble very often leads to others, and curing the one will 
not eliminate the others. 

If trouble exists outside the battery and the battery is badly 
discharged, tell the owner he has an abnormal condition or 
trouble some place on his car, and that his battery will have 



224 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


to be taken off his car, and a renter put in its place while his 
is being charged, repaired or rebuilt, as the case may be, and 
that the trouble or abnormal condition must be removed or his 
battery will run down again in a short time. It is your busi¬ 
ness to get the job; do it in as agreeable a manner as possible. 
If you have good reasons to believe it is some trivial trouble, 
fix it as quickly as possible in a workmanlike manner. If it 
proves to be anything serious that will take considerable time, 
make an appointment with the owner to have him leave his car, 
and when he leaves it, locate the direct cause of trouble, repair 
it as quickly as possible, in a conscientious, workmanlike man¬ 
ner, so that it will stay fixed. Your business will grow just in 
proportion to the satisfactory service you give. Satisfy every 
customer and give him a square deal. The public is not slow 
in locating and patronizing this kind of repair shop. 

You must have a standard method of procedure. It is the only 
way to avoid the haphazard, hit-or-miss habits of an inferior re¬ 
pairman. Go through the steps described below, and you will 
soon have the business-getting, profit-making habits which you 
need in order to be successful. 

The Standard procedure is as follows: 

1. Ask the Driver or Owner Why He Brought the Car to 
Your Shop. Remember what he says when you take the re¬ 
maining steps. 

2. Open the Battery Box and Make a General Inspection. 

(a) Is the Battery Covered with Dust and Dirt? Brush off 
the coarser dirt with an old whisk broom. Then take a rag wet 
with ammonia or solution of washing soda and wipe all parts 
clean. 

(b) Are the Cables Tight? Feel each connection at the posi¬ 
tive and negative terminals. If any are loose, tighten them. 
See that no cable is partly broken through, especially at the end 
of the terminal. See that cables are well insulated. 

(c) Are the Top Connectors Tight? Feel each connector. If 
one or more are loose, you must take battery from the car and 
reburn them. 

(d) Is There Corrosion at the Battery Terminals? This is 




indicated by a deposit of a green or gray substance, especially 
at the positive. 

Corrosion will cause a poor connection, and may even open 
the circuit entirely. If corrosion is present, remove the cable 
if possible, and clean the parts with a rag wet with ammonia 
or a solution of washing soda. If you cannot remove the cable 
easily, try to do so with a pair of terminal tongs. If the tongs 
do not loosen the cable, bore off the terminal and soak it in 
boiling soda water. This will loosen the joint. Remove all the 
corrosion and burn on the connector again. Reconnect the cable 
and cover all the exposed lead parts with a heavy coating of 
vaseline. 

A battery with corroded terminals is very likely in a discharged 
condition, and the remaining directions for inspection and test¬ 
ing should be carried out. 

(e) Are All the Connections Clean? Remove cables and if 
there is any dirt on contact surfaces, soak in boiling soda water 
and wipe dry. 

(f) Is the Battery Loose in the Box? If so, put in new hold 
down bolts. A loose battery will cause broken jars, spilled elec¬ 
trolyte (causing corrosion at terminals, short-circuits, rotted box, 
rotted case, low gravity, low liquid in cells), and loose cables. 

Always examine closely the battery box on car. See if the bat¬ 
tery is hung loosely, or not properly braced, or no hold downs at¬ 
tached, or if loose in the box, or if the terminal cables jump 
around with vibration of car. The trouble may be due to any 
one of the above causes. Never put a battery on a car without 
noticing carefully all the above possible conditions and if any 
exist call the car owner’s attention to them and ask him if he 
wants them fixed; fix them right and charge him for the time and 
material used. Always have a supply of hold down bolts, % or 
5-16 inch on hand of two lengths, 11 inches and 12y 2 inches; 
also have good heavy spring washers and winged nuts, for same. 

It is a fact that a battery should be firmly fastened down; do 
not overdo it, however, by screwing the hold down so tight as 
to pull off the handles or break the sealing on end of case, but 
the battery must be firmly clamped down, and the box or hanger 
the battery is in must be solidly fastened to the car, and have no 






226 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


perceptible vibration other than the movement of the car. For 
repairing handles that have pulled off, see page 287. 

(g) Is Any of the Sealing Compound on Top of the Cells 
Broken at the Posts, Filling Vent, or Around the Edges? See Trou¬ 
ble Chart, No. 7, page 241. This will cause the battery to be a 
“stopper,” one in which electrolyte is thrown out through the 
cracks in the compound by the jolting of the car on the road. 
If so, remove battery from car and open it. See page 246. 

(h) Are the Ends of Battery Bulged Out? If so, the bat¬ 
tery has been frozen. Remove battery from car and open it. 
See page 246. 

(i) Is the Battery Case, or Metal Box, Rotted and Eaten 
Through? See Trouble Chart No. 8, page 242. If condition of 
box is very bad, remove battery from car and open it. See page 

246. 

3. Read the Date Marks on the Battery. If you cannot find 
them, ask the driver how long the battery has been on the car. 
If he says it has been in use for fifteen months or more, the bat¬ 
tery is probably worn out, and needs new plates. Open the bat¬ 
tery. See page 246. If battery has been in use only a short 
time, or less than a year, try to find out if battery was new 
when installed on car. It may have been a second hand battery 
in the first place, and may now be old enough to need new plates. 

If battery looks new, proceed with remainder examination. 

Telling a Battery’s Age. 

Manufacturers use codes in order to indicate the ages of their 
batteries. The codes consist of letters, or combinations of letters 
and figures which are stamped on the connectors or on the 
nameplate. The code may also be burned on the case. The 
actual date may also be stamped on the battery. The codes of 
some of the leading manufacturers are given below. 

Exide Age Code. 

Since October, 1917, the date of shipment from the factory 
or “depots” has been stamped on the top of the first inter-cell 







DETERMINATION OF CONDITION OF BATTERY 227 


connector link from the negative end 

of 

the battery instead 

of 

on the 
follows 

nameplate. 

Figures 

are used 

to 

indicate 

the dates 

as 

Month 

Stamp 

Month 

Stamp 

Month 

Stamp 

Oct. 

1917 Y 

J uly 

1918 

G 

April 

1919 

R 

Nov. 

“ Z 

Aug. 

C < 

II 

May 

i i 

S 

Dec. 

“ & 

Sept. 

i i 

I 

June 

< i 

T 

Jan. 

1918 A 

Oct. 

i i 

J 

J uly 

i i 

U 

Feb. 

“ B 

Nov. 

c c 

K 

Aug. 

< i 

Y 

Mar. 

“ C 

Dec. 

C i 

L 

Sept. 

i i 

W 

April 

‘ ‘ D 

Jan. 

1919 

M 

Oct. 

(< 

Y 

May 

“ E 

Feb. 

l i 

0 

Nov. 

< i 

Z 

June 

“ f 

Mar. 

c c 

Q 

Dec. 

i i 

& 

Care 

should be 

taken not 

to confuse 

the date 

letters with 


letters stamped above the pillar posts before Oct. 1917, to identify 
the workman doing the lead burning. To avoid such confusion 
figures instead of letters have been used for workman identifica¬ 
tion since Oct. 1917. 

U S L Age Code. 

The following is the code by which the age of U S L Batteries 
is indicated since January, 1917. 

Before that period serial numbers only indicated the age. 



1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 

January . 

.AQ 

* AR 

AS 

AT 

February . 

.BQ 

BR 

BS 

BT 

March . 

.CQ 

CR 

cs 

CT 

April . 

.DQ 

DR 

DS 

DT 

May . 

.EQ 

ER 

ES 

ET 

June . 

.FQ 

FR 

FS 

FT 

July . 

.GQ 

GR 

GS 

GT 

August . 

.IIQ 

HR 

HS 

HT 

September . 

.TQ 

IR 

IS 

IT 

October . 

.IQ 

JR 

JS 

JT 

November . 

.KQ 

KR 

KS 

KT 

December . 

.EQ 

LR 

LS 

LT 
















228 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


Philadelphia Age Code. 


Following is the age code by which the adjustment period is 
determined on Philadelphia Batteries. 

This does not indicate the date of manufacture, but instead 


the latest date from which adjustment can be made. 
These letters appear in the second position. 

1918 1919 

1918 

1919 

January . 

. . .C 

Q 

July . 

. . .F 

II 

February . 

%/ 

. . I 

K 

August . 

. . .J 

L 

March . 

. ..M 

0 

September . 

. . .N 

P 

April . 

. . .R 

T 

October . 

.. .S 

U 

May . 

. .YY 

Y 

November . 

. . X 

z 

June . 

. . .A 

E 

December . 

. .V 

D 



Vesta Age Code. 





1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

January . 

t/ 

.AZ 

AY 

AX 

A YY 

A Y 

February . 

.BZ 

BY 

BX 

BW 

B Y 

March . 

.CZ 

C Y 

CX 

C YY 

C Y 

April . 

.DZ 

D Y 

DX 

D YY 

D Y 

May . 

.EZ 

E Y 

EX 

E YY 

EV 

June . 

.FZ 

F Y 

FX 

F YY 

F Y 

July . 

•j 

.GZ 

GY 

GX 

G YY 

GY 

August . 

.HZ 

H Y 

1IX 

II YY 

11 A" 

September . 

.IZ 

I Y 

I X 

I YY 

I Y 

October . 

.JZ 

J Y 

J X 

J YY 

J Y 

November . 

.KZ 

K Y 

KX 

K YY 

IvY 

December . 

.LZ 

LY 

LX 

L YY 

LY 


Note that the second letter of the Vesta Age Code denotes the 
year, starting at the end of the alphabet and working toward 
the beginning, Z indicating 1914, Y 1915, and so on. The first 
letter indicates the month of the year numbered alphabetically. 





























DETERMINATION OF CONDITION OF BATTERY 229 


Willard Age Code. 



1913 1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

January . 

.K 

A 

M 

A A 

BA 

C A 

February . 

.L 

B 

N 

AB 

BB 

CB 

March . 

. . . . M 

C 

0 

AC 

BC 

CC 

April. 

. . . . N 

D 

Q 

AD 

BD 

CD 

May . 

.0 

E 

R 

AE 

BE 

CE 

June . 

.Q 

F 

S 

AF 

BF 

CF 

July . 

.R 

G 

T 

AG 

B G 

CG 

August . 

° 

.S 

II 

U 

All 

B II 

C1I 

September . 

.T 

I 

Y 

A J 

B J 

C J 

October . 

. . . . U 

J 

W 

AK 

BK 

CK 

November . 

.... V 

K 

Y 

AL 

BL 

CL 

December . 

.... w 

L 

Z 

AM 

BM 

CM 

The Willard code 
using “A” for 1916, 

uses the 
and so or 

first letter as the 
alphabetically. 

year since 

1916, 

The second letter 

indicates 

the 

month 

in alphabetical 

order 


except that “I” lias been dropped. 

Prest-O-Lite Age Code. 

This code is a comprehensive one, for by it is indicated the 
plant at which the Battery was made and in what month and 
also the Branch from which it was distributed. 

For instance, the marking “50 C“ would indicate that the Bat¬ 
tery was manufactured at Plant 2 in June, 1917. 

The mark “17 E“ would indicate that it was delivered by the 
New York Branch in August, 1917. 


Plant 2 . 

.50 

Milwaukee . 

.15 

Plant 3 . 

.60 

Minneapolis . 

.16 

0 Plant 3. 

.60 

New York. 

.17 

Indianapolis . 

. 1 

Omaha . 

.18 

Baltimore 

. 2 

Philadelphia . 

.19 

Boston. 

. 3 

Pittsburgh . 

.20 

Buffalo . 

. 4 

(Memphis . 

.22 

Chicago . 

. 5 

San Francisco. 

.23 































230 THE 

AUTOMOBILE 

storage battery 

Cincinnati . . . . 

. 6 

Seattle . 

.24 

Cleveland . . .. 

. 7 

Atlanta. 

. 25 

St. Louis. 

. 8 

Merrilton . 

.27 

Dallas . 

. 9 

Indian Orchard 

.28 

Denver . 

.10 

Des Moines . . . 

.29 

Detroit . 

.11 

Davenport .... 

.30 

Kansas City . . 

.12 

Winnipeg. 

.31 

Los Angeles . . 
Jacksonville . . 

.13 

.14 

Syracuse . 

.32 

1917 

1918 

1919 

June —C 

Jan. 

—K 

J an. —N 

July —P 

Feb. 

—L 

Feb. •—Y 

Aug. —E 

Mar. 

—M 

Mar. —L 

Sept. —P 

Apr. 

—N 

Apr. —A 

Oct. —G 

May 

r- PN 

May —B 

Nov. —H 

J une 

—Q 

June —C 

Dec. —J 

J uly 

—R 

Julv —D 

%/ 


Aug. 

—S 

Aug. — E 


Sept. 

— T 

Sept. —F 


Oct. 

— U 

Oct. — G 


Nov. 

—V 

Nov. — H 


Dec. 

— W 

Dec. — J 


4. Remove the vent plugs (vent caps) and inspect level of 
electrolyte in each cell. If the electrolyte is above the tops of the 
plates, and you can draw up enough of it to float the hydrome¬ 
ter, measure its specific gravity. See No. 5, which follows. 

If the electrolyte is below the tops of the plates in all the 
cells, add distilled water until the electrolyte covers the plates 
to a depth of about one-half inch. 

(a) If it requires only a small amount of water to bring up 
the level of the electrolyte, remove the battery and give it a 
bench charge. See page 170. Only a brief charge may be neces¬ 
sary. Ask the driver when water was added last. If more than 
a month has passed since the last filling, the upper parts of the 
plates may be sulphated, and the battery should be charged at a 
low rate. 
























DETERMINATION OF CONDITION OF BATTERY 231 


If the owner is in a hurry, turn on the lamps, and start the 
engine with the starting motor. If the lamps become very dim, 
take off the battery and give it a bench charge and in the mean¬ 
time put a rental battery on the car. If the lamps do not become 
very dim, tell the owner to use his lamps and starting motor as 
little as possible for several days. Another plan is to run the 
engine for about an hour to give the water which you added to 
the battery time to become mixed with the electrolyte. Then 
take specific gravity readings and be guided by them in deciding 
if the battery requires further attention. See No. 5 which fol¬ 
lows. 

(b) If it requires a considerable amount of water to bring 
up the level of the electrolyte, and the bottom of the wooden 
battery case shows no signs of being rotted, the battery has been 
neglected, and has been dry for a long time, and the plates are 
mostly likely badly damaged. Open the battery for inspection. 

(c) If only one cell requires a considerable amount of water 
to bring up the level of its electrolyte, and the bottom of the 
wooden battery case shows no sign of being rotted, that cell is 

probably “dead,” due to an internal short-circuit. To test for 

* 

“dead” cells, turn on the lamps and measure the voltage of each 
cell. A dead cell will not give any voltage on test, or at the most 
will give a very low voltage. A battery with a dead cell should 
be opened for inspection. 

(d) If the bottom part of the wooden battery case is rotted, 
and a considerable amount of water had to be added to any 
or all cells to bring up the level of the electrolyte, the battery 
has leaky jars and must be opened to have the leaky jars replaced 
by good ones. 

If there is any doubt in your mind as to whether any or all 
jars are leaking, fill the cells with distilled water and let the 
battery stand for twelve to twenty-four hours. If at or before 
the end of that time the electrolyte has fallen below the tops of 
the plates in any or all cells, these cells have leaky jars, and the 
battery must be opened and the leaky jars replaced with good 
ones. 

5. Measure the specific gravity of each cell of the battery with 
the hydrometer. If 5,11 the cells read between 1.150 and 1.200, 





I 


232 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


advise the owner to use his lights and starting motor as little 
as possible until the gravity rises to 1.280-1.300. If this is not 
satisfactory to him, remove the battery and give it a bench 
charge. If all cells read 1.150 or less, remove the battery and give 
it a bench charge. See page 170. 

If the specific gravity readings are all above 1.200, or if the 
gravity reading of one cell is 50 points (such as the difference 
between 1.200 and 1.250, which is 50 “points”) lower or higher 
than the others, make the high rate discharge test on the battery. 
See page 188. If this test indicates that the internal condition 
of the battery is bad, the battery should be opened for inspection. 
If the test indicates that the internal condition of the battery is 
good, the specific gravity of the electrolyte needs adjusting. The 
difference in specific gravity readings in the cells is due to one 
of the following causes: 

(a) Water added to the cell or cells which have low gravity 
to replace electrolyte which had been spilled or lost in some 
other manner. 

(b) Electrolyte added to the cell or cells which have high 
gravity to replace the water which naturally evaporates from 
the electrolyte. 

(c) Trouble inside the cell or cells which have low gravity. 
The high rate discharge test will show whether there is any 
internal trouble. 

If the high rate test indicated that there is no internal trouble, 
and that the gravity of the electrolyte needs adjusting proceed as 
follows. 

If any cell shows a gravity above 1.300, put the battery on 
charge. If the gravity continues to rise above 1.310 in any or all 
cells, dump the electrolyte from the cell or cells in which this 
occurs, fill with distilled water, and continue the charge for ten 
hours after the specific gravity stops rising. Then adjust specific 
gravity of electrolyte. If the specific gravity is much less than 
1.250 at the end of the charge, dump it out, fill with 1.300 acid 
and continue the charge for several hours after the specific 
gravity stops rising. Then make a final adjustment of the gravtiy 
of the electrolyte. 

If the gravity of one or more cells is 50 points less than the 








DETERMINATION OF CONDITION OF BATTERY 233 


others, water has been used to replace electrolyte which has been 
spilled or lost in some other manner, or else one or more jars 
are cracked. A battery with one or more cracked jars usually 
has the bottom parts of its wooden case rotted by the electrolyte 
which leaks from the jar. If you are not certain whether the 
battery has one or more cracked jars, see that the electrolyte 
covers the plates in all the cells one-half inch or so, and then 
let the battery stand. If the electrolyte sinks below the tops of 
the plates in one or more cells within twenty-four hours, those 
cells have leaky jars, and the battery must be opened, and new 
jars put in. 

If the low gravity is not caused by leaky jars, give the battery 
a bench charge and adjust the level of the electrolyte. 

Note:—It sometimes happens that gravity readings of 1.200 
or over are obtained, and the voltage is high, and yet the lights 
are dim and the starter will not crank the engine. This shows 
that acid has been added instead of water. See page 173. 

6. There May Be Other Symptoms of Trouble Such as:— 

(a) Battery Overheats While Car Is Running. See Trouble 
Chart No. 4, page 240. Electrolyte is below surface of plates, 
or generator is delivering too much charging current. Battery 
may also be located near a hot place such as the exhaust pipe. 
Look for low electrolyte (See 4, above) ; measure charging cur¬ 
rent with ammeter; if battery is near a hot place, change its loca¬ 
tion. 

(b) Battery Runs Down Quickly on Car After Being Charged. 

Generator not delivering charging current, or too small a current. 
There may be short circuits or grounds in wiring which cause a 
continuous discharge. Use the AMBU Trouble Shooter. See 

Trouble Chart No. 10, page 242. 

(c) Battery Will Not Take a Charge. See Trouble Chart No. 

6, page 241, and No. 5, page 240. Look for loose connections. If 
none are found, remove battery from car and open it. See 
page 246. 

(d) Specific Gravity Low Even Though Generator Is Deliver¬ 
ing the Proper Charge. There may not be enough acid in the 
electrolyte. If specific gravity will not rise after long continued 
charge, remove water and add 1.400 specific gravity electrolyte, 
so as to bring specific gravity of each cell up to 1.280. 







234 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


(e) Lights on One Side of Car Burn Dim, and on Other Bright. 

This occurs when a three wire lighting system is used with a 12 
volt battery. It indicates that one side of the battery is carry¬ 
ing a heavier load than the other. Change wiring so that same 
current is drawn from each half of battery. Remove battery 
from car and give it a bench charge. See page 170. 

(f) Battery Run Down After Storage. Remove and give bat¬ 
tery a long charge, as for sulphated battery. See page 173. It 
may be impossible to put any life into the battery, on account of 
badly sulphated or disintegrated plates. 

7. In order to do the best work and build up a reputation for 
thoroughness, test the lighting system and the generator, with all 
the wiring. Your battery trouble may be due to some fault in 
other parts of the starting and lighting system, and unless you 
find this trouble, it is of little use to put the battery in shape, 
as the same trouble will soon return. For such testing you should 
have an “AMBLT” Trouble Shooter, which quickly and accurately 
locates troubles in the starting and lighting system of all Amer¬ 
ican made cars. 

8. The action of the cutout relay in opening or closing the 
charging circuit must be correct. This should always be checked 
according to the directions given below: 

The cutout should close the circuit between the battery and 
dynamo as soon as the voltage of the dynamo is sufficiently above 
that of the battery to cause a charging current to flow from the 
dynamo to the battery. The action of the cutout may be tested 
as follows: 

First turn off all the lamps; make sure that the specific gravity 
of each cell of the battery is at least 1.250 and that the dynamo 
is giving its normal output. If the battery is run down, it must 
be charged, or a ‘‘renter 11 put in its place. Connect an ammeter 
in series with the battery. To do this disconnect the cable from 
the positive terminal of the battery. Connect this cable to the 
positive terminal of the ammeter. Connect the other ammeter 
terminal to the positive terminal of the battery. The ammeter 
should have a 25 ampere scale, and should preferably have the 
“0” line in the center so that the pointer can swing both to the 
left and right of this line. With the engine running, gradually 


DETERMINATION OP CONDITION OF BATTERY 235 


close the throttle until the engine runs slow enough to allow the 
cutout to remain open. When the cutout is open, the ammeter 
pointer will be over the “O” line. Now gradually increase the 
engine speed and watch the ammeter pointer. At some speed 
between 5 and 15 miles per hour, the pointer will swing to the 
right or left of the “0” line, showing that the cutout has closed. 

If the pointer first swings to one side of the “0” line and then 
with increasing engine speed moves to the other side of the “0” 
line, or if the cutout points “chatter” several times before clos¬ 
ing, the cutout is closing too soon. This condition may be rem¬ 
edied by increasing the air gap between the movable cutout arm 
and the electromagnet, or by increasing the spring tension. In¬ 
creasing the spring tension will also cause the cutout to open at 
a higher engine speed than before, and in making this adjust¬ 
ment care should be taken that the action of the cutout in open¬ 
ing is as described below. 

If the pointer first swings to one side of the “0” line, and 
remains on that side of the “0” line as the speed of the engine 
increases, the contacts are not closing at too low a speed, but may 
still be closing at too high an engine speed. Bring the engine to 
its lowest speed and then gradually open the throttle. When the 
pointer moves to one side of the “0” line, hold the engine speed 
constant at that point for an instant. Then with a further in¬ 
crease of en<gine speed, the pointer should move farther away 
from the “0” line. Increase the engine speed until the charging 
current stops rising. Note if this maximum is correct. If the 
pointer moves so as to indicate the normal charging current as 
soon as the cutout closes, or if only two or three amperes more 
charging current are obtained with increased engine speed, it 
indicates that the cutout is closing at too high a speed. This con¬ 
dition may be remedied by either decreasing the air gap or de¬ 
creasing the spring tension on the movable arm of the cutout. 
In decreasing the spring tension, check the action of the cutout 
in opening when the engine is stopped, as described below, in 
order that the discharge current necessary to allow the spring 
to open the cutout may not be too great. 

Check the action of the cutout in opening; start with the cut¬ 
out closed and then gradually decrease the engine speed. The 





236 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


pointer will move toward the “ 0 ” line and then will cross the 
“0” line and move beyond it. The amount of the motion beyond 
the “0” line should not exceed two or three amperes and the 
pointer should remain on this side of the line for only a very 
brief instant and should then return to the “0” line, showing 
that the cutout has opened. If the cutout opens before the 
pointer passes beyond the “0” line, the spring tension should 
be decreased. If the pointer moves beyond the “0” line so as 
to indicate a discharge current of more than 4 amperes, or if the 
pointer remains below the “0” line for more than an instant, 
the spring tension should be increased. 

It sometimes happens that a cutout will not open as the engine 
is stopped and such a condition should be remedied at once by 
making the contact points clean and smooth, and by increasing 
the spring tension. When the cutout acts in this way and the 
condition is not remedied, the battery will discharge into the 
generator until it is run down. Such a condition often exists 
without the knowledge of the car owner and is the reason for 
much mysterious battery trouble, in which the battery appar¬ 
ently runs down without any cause being discovered. Such con¬ 
ditions are often hard to discover because in connecting a testing 
instrument at the battery, the cutout may open as soon as the 
battery circuit is broken and no discharge of current will be 
indicated on the meter. It is therefore necessary in testing any 
car to start the engine and then stop it and notice if any dis¬ 
charge current is shown on the meter, thus indicating that the 
cutout lias not opened. 

Most cars now use battery ignition systems, and it is necessary 
to use dry cells or an extra storage battery to furnish the ignition 
current while making the test. 

BATTERY TROUBLE CHART NO. 1. 

LOW GRAVITY OR LOW VOLTAGE. 

A. LOOK FOR THE FOLLOWING TROUBLES: 

1. Loose or dirty terminals or connectors. 

2. Broken terminals or connectors. 

3. Loose plugs causing flooding. 














DETERMINATION OF CONDITION OF BATTERY 237 


4. Corroded terminals caused by acid on top of battery due 
to overfilling or flooding. 

5. Copper wires attached to battery posts. Remove wires and 
attach battery cables at least one foot from battery terminals. 

6. Acid or moisture on top of battery, causing current leakage 

7. Tools or wire causing short circuits. 

8. Short circuits or grounds in wiring. Use “AMBU” Trou¬ 
ble Shooter. 

9. Three wire lighting system with unequally divided load, 
discharging two halves of batten at different rates. Redistribute 
load. 

10. Multiple section battery charged with two or more sections 
in parallel. Cable terminals and connections must all be clean 
and tight. 

11. Check action of cutout relay. See page 234. 

12. Polarity of dynamo reversed, or battery connections re¬ 
versed. 

13. Excessive lamp current. Use “AMBU” Trouble Shooter. 

14. Dynamo not charging battery. Use “AMBU” Trouble 
Shooter. 

15. Dynamo charging battery at too low a rate. Use “AMBU” 
Trouble Shooter. 

B. ASK THE DRIVER: 

1. If water has been added once every week. 

2. If distilled water only has been used. 

3. If too much water is added. 

4. If electrolyte has been spilled and replaced by water. 

5. If any alcohol or anti-freeze mixture has been added. 

6. If electrolyte is always returned to correct cell after hy¬ 
drometer readings. 

7. If impure acid or electrolyte has been used. 

8. Has battery been dropped? 

9. Has battery been idle, or stored without regular charging 
for several months? 

10. Has specific gravity been low for a considerable time? 
There is, therefore, sulphation present 




238 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


11. How old is the battery? If a battery has been used more 
than fifteen months, it is best to put in a new one. 

12. Is car used in night time more than the day time? Con¬ 
siderable night driving does not allow battery to remain charged. 

13. Is starter used frequently? 

14. Has starter been used frequently, merely to demonstrate 
it? 

15. How fast is car driven on an average? Speed should be 
at least 15 m.p.h. Battery is not charged at low speed. 

16. How long do you spin the engine with the starting motor? 
Should not exceed one half minute. 

17. If it is winter, caution driver to keep battery charged, even 
if battery must occasionally be removed from car to do so. 

C. IF BATTERY HAS BEEN REPAIRED: 

The trouble may be due to 

1. Negative exposed to air. 

2. Common wood used in place of separators. 

3. Grooved sides of separators put toward negative plates in¬ 
stead of positive. 

4. A separator may have been left out. 

5. Positives used that should have been discarded. 

6. Bulged negatives used. 

7. Poor connections made. 

D. BATTERY TROUBLE WHICH MAY EXIST: 

1. Sulphated Plates. 

2. Buckled Plates. 

3. Internal Corrosion. 

4. Shedding of Active Material. 

5. Internal Short Circuits. 

6. Cracked Jars. 

7. Hardened Negatives. 

8. Clogged Separators. 

9. Battery frozen. 

10. Negatives reversed. 

11. Disintegrated positives, 




DETERMINATION OF CONDITION OF BATTERY 239 


BATTERY TROUBLE CHART NO. 2. 

HIGH GRAVITY. 

A. PROBABLE CAUSES: 

1. Raw acid added instead of water. 

2. Electrolyte added instead of water. 

3. Electrolyte replaced in wrong cell after testing specific 
gravity. 

B. BATTERY TROUBLES WHICH MAY EXIST: 

1. Sulphated Plates. 

2. Burned Separators. 

3. Internal Corrosion. 


BATTERY TROUBLE CHART NO. 3. 

LOW LEVEL OF ELECTROLYTE. 

A. PROBABLE CAUSES: 

1. Water not added. 

2. Electrolyte replaced in wrong cell after testing specific 
gravity. 

3. Battery dropped. 

4. Battery loose in box. 

5. Battery located in hot place, such as near the exhaust pipe. 

6. Battery overcharged due to long daylight runs, with little 
use of lamps. 


B. BATTERY TROUBLES WHICH MAY EXIST: 

1. Sulphated plates. 

2. Cracked jars. 

3. Burned separators. 

4. Shedding of active materials. 



240 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


BATTERY TROUBLE CHART NO. 4. 


BATTERY OVERHEATS. 


A. 


PROBABLE CAUSES: 




1. Battery located in hot place on car. 

2. Water not added regularly. 

3. Impure water used. 

4. Electrolyte dirty. 

5. Impure acid used. 

6. Alcohol or Anti-Freeze licpiid added. 

7. Sulphated battery charged at too high a rate. 

8. Common wood used for separators. 

9. Battery overcharged by long daylight runs. 

10. Battery charged at too high a rate due to excessive gen¬ 
erator output. 


B. BATTERY TROUBLES WHICH MAY EXIST: 


1. Sulphated plates. 

2. Softened or broken jars. 

3. Cracked, burned, or broken separators. 

4. Buckled plates. 

5. Active material has dropped out. 

6. Separators clogged. 


OTHER TROUBLES. 

5. SPECIFIC GRAVITY WILL NOT RISE ON CHARGE. 
A. PROBABLE CAUSES: 

1. Battery badly sulphated. 

2. Not enough acid in electrolyte. 

3. Sediment in bottom of jars, 

4. Bulged negatives, 

5. Impurities. 














DETERMINATION OF CONDITION OF BATTERY 241 


B. REMEDIES: (Numbered to correspond with causes given 
above). 

1. Long charge at 3 to 5 ampere rate. 

2. Charge until specific gravity is constant for several hours. 
Then draw off some electrolyte and add 1.400 electrolyte. Charge 
again, and repeat until specific gravity is 1.280-1.300. 

3. Open Battery. See page 246. 

4. Press negatives after they are fully charged. 

5. If plates are not too seriously damaged, charge battery and 
renew electrolyte. 

6. BATTERY WILL NOT TAKE CHARGE. 

A. PROBABLE CAUSES: 

1. Badly sulphated plates. 

2. Terminals or top connectors corroded, dirty, or loose. 

3. Open circuit inside of battery. 

B. REMEDIES: (Numbered to correspond with causes given 
above). 

1. Open battery. See page 246. 

2. Remove corrosion, tighten and clean terminals, reburn top 
connectors. 

3. Open battery. See page 246. 

7. ELECTROLYTE LEAKING AT TOP. 

A. PROBABLE CAUSES: 

1. Too much water added. 

2. Battery loose in case. 

3. Battery poorly sealed, causing a “slopper.” 

4. Vent plugs loose. 

5. Cables pulling on terminals. 

B. REMEDIES: (Numbered to correspond with causes given 
above). 

1. Add correct amount of water. 

2. Fasten battery in case. 


242 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


3. Reseal battery. See page 295. 

4. Tighten vent plugs. 

5. Lengthen cables, or change positions of terminals to re¬ 
lieve strain. 


8. BATTERY BOX ROTTED. 

A. PROBABLE CAUSES: 

1. All the causes given in preceding chart. 

2. Broken jars. 

3. Electrolyte spilled in testing specific gravity. 

B. REMEDIES: (Numbered to correspond with causes given 
above). 

1. All the remedies given in preceding chart. 

2. New Jars—Open battery. See page 246. 

9. CORRODED TERMINALS. 

A. PROBABLE CAUSES: 

1. All the causes given in No. 7 above. 

2. Connecting copper wire directly to battery terminals. 

3. Electrolyte spilled in testing specific gravity. 

B. REMEDIES: (Numbered to correspond with causes given 
above). 

1. All the remedies given in No. 7. 

2. Connect wires to battery cables at least one foot from bat¬ 
tery. 

3. Wipe off electrolyte spilled in testing specific gravity. 
Remove corrosion. 

10. BATTERY DISCHARGES RAPIDLY. 

A. PROBABLE CAUSES: 

1. Short circuits or grounds in wiring. (Battery idle). 

2. Short circuit in battery. (Battery idle.) 

3. Battery old, with most of active material dropped from 
grids. (Battery in use.) 


DETERMINATION OF CONDITION OF BATTERY 243 


B. REMEDIES: (Numbered to correspond with causes given 
above). 

1. Locate short circuits or grounds in wiring and remove. 
Use the “Ambu Trouble Shooter/’ 

2. Open battery and clear shorts. See page 246. 

3. Open battery and install new plates. See page 246. 

11. LIGHTS DIM. 

A. PROBABLE CAUSES: 

1. Battery partly discharged, due to insufficient charge. 

2. Dead cell in battery. 

3. Dirty, corroded, or loose terminals and top connectors. 

4. Dynamo not delivering sufficient charging current. 

5. Car used mostly at night with lights burning. 

B. REMEDIES: (Numbered to correspond with causes given 
above). 

1. Remove battery and charge on charge bench. 

2. Open battery. See page 246. 

3. Clean and tighten terminals. Reburn top connectors. 

4. Use “Ambu Trouble Shooter.” 

5. Change driving conditions, or charge battery about once a 
month while removed from car. 

SUMMARY OF WORK TO BE DONE ON BATTERY. 

1. When May a Battery Be Left on the Car? 

1 (a) When you find that the specific gravity of all cells is more 
than 1.150, the voltage of each cell is at least 2, the voltage does 
not drop when the lights are turned on, or the lights do not be¬ 
come very dim when the engine is cranked with the starting 
motor, there are no loose terminals or connectors, the sealing 
compound is not broken or cracked so as to cause a “slopper,” 
the electrolyte covers the plates, the box is not rotted by acid, 
and there are no broken jars. 

(b) Conditions given in (a) will exist only if battery has been 
well taken care of, and some trouble has suddenly and recently 
arisen, such as caused by a break in one of the battery cables, 






244 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


loosening of a cable connection at the battery or in the line to 
the starting motor. 

(c) If removing of corrosion, cleaning or tightening of ter¬ 
minals at battery will make the starting, charging, and lighting 
systems operate satisfactorily. 

(d) If battery cells all show gravities of 1.150 to 1.200, due 
to the conditions given in (b) and (c), and the driver promises 
to use his starter and lights sparingly until battery is fully 
charged. 

2. When Should a Battery Be Removed from Car? 

(a) When you find broken sealing compound, causing a 
“slopper.” 

(b) When you find top connectors and terminals loose, cor¬ 
roded, or poorly burned on. 

(c) When you find box badly rotted by acid, or otherwise 
defective. 

(d) When you find a cracked jar, indicated by low electrolyte, 
or find that electrolyte level falls below the tops of the plates 
soon after adding water. 

(e) When you find a dead cell, indicated by very low or no 
voltage. 

(f) When specific gravity of electrolyte is less than 1.150. 

(g) When battery voltage drops to about 1.8 or less per cell 
when lamps are turned on, or lamps become very dim when the 
starting motor is cranking the engine, or the high rate discharge 
test shows that there is trouble in the cells. 

(h) When you find that electrolyte is below tops of plates, 
and it requires considerable water to bring it up to the correct 
height. 

(i) When battery overheats on charge, or discharge, although 
battery is not located in hot place, charging rate is not too high, 
and lamps and accessories load is normal. 

(j) When battery is more than 18 months old, and action not 
satisfactory. 

(k) When a blacksmith or plumber has tried his hand at re¬ 
building the battery, or the car owner has attempted to save 
money by doing his own repair work. Such a battery is shown 
in Fig. 97. 


DETERMINATION OF CONDITION OF BATTERY 245 


(1) When the ends of the case are bulged out, indicating a 
frozen battery. 

3. When Is It Unnecessary to Open Up a Battery? 

(a) When the conditions given in paragraphs (a), (b), (f), 

(g) , (h), and (i), in section 2, above, can be remedied by outside 
repairs, or by charging; (a) and (b) require repairs, and (f), (g), 

(h) , and (i) require charging. If the charging will not cause the 



Fig. 97. Battery Rebuilt by a Blacksmith. 


specific gravity to come up to 1.280-1.300, it will be necessary to 
open the battery. See page 246. 

4. When Must a Battery Be Opened? 

(a) When the conditions given in section 2, paragraphs (a), 

(b), (f), (g), (h) and (i) cannot be remedied by charging or 
repairs that do not require the removal of the sealing compound. 

(b) When you find the conditions given in section 2, para- 
graphs (e), (d), (e), (j), (k), and (1). 

(c) When the high rate discharge test shows that the battery 
should be opened. See page 246. 












CHAPTER 15. 


REBUILDING THE BATTERY. 

How to Open a Battery. 

A battery is open when its plates have been drawn out of the 
hard rubber jars. All parts are then exposed, and accessible for 
inspection and repairs. In an assembled battery, the top of each 



Fig. 98. Drilling Post and Top Connector. Battery in Special Box. 


cell is closed by a hard rubber cover. Leakproof joints are made 
between these covers and the rubber jars and the wooden case 
by means of sealing compound which is poured in place while 

246 









REBUILDING THE BATTERY 


247 


in a molten condition, and which hardens as it cools and joins 
the covers to the jars. The joints between the covers and the 
posts which project through the covers are in many batteries 
made with sealing compound. The cells are then connected to 
each other by means of the cell-to-cell connectors, also called 
“top-connectors,” or simply “connectors.” These connectors 
are joined to the lead posts, to which are connected the plate 



groups, by fusing with a flame, and melting in additional lead to 
make a joint. 

In opening a battery, we must first disconnect the cells from 
each other, and then open the joint made by the sealing compound 
between the covers and the jars and case. The plates may then 
be lifted out of the jars, and the battery is open. The steps nec¬ 
essary to open a battery follow, in the order in which they must 
be taken. 

1. Clean the Battery. Set the battery on the bench. See that 
the vent plugs are all tight in place. Then clean the outside of 
the battery. Remove the greater part of the dirt with a brush, 














248 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


old whisk-broom, or a putty knife. Then put the battery in the 
sink and let the water run over it using a stiff bristled brush to 
remove whatever dirt was not removed in the first place. A four 
inch paint brush is satisfactory for this work, and will last a 
year or more if taken care of. If water will not remove all the 
dirt, try a rag wet with gasoline. 

2. Drilling Off the Connectors and Terminals. When you have 
cleaned the outside of the battery as thoroughly as possible, set 
the battery on the floor near your work bench, or in a shallow 
box, as shown in Fig. 98. Make a sketch of the top of the bat¬ 
tery, showing the exact arrangement of the terminals and con¬ 
nectors. This sketch should be made on the tag upon which is 
given the owner’s name, what work is to be done on the battery, 
and so on, as shown in Fig. 80. Tie this tag on the handle near 
the negative terminal of the battery. Then drill down over the 
centers of the posts. For this you will need a large brace with 
a heavy chuck, a drill the same size as the post (the part that 
goes down into the battery), a large screw-driver, a center 

With the center punch, mark 
the exact centers of the tops of 
the posts and connectors. Then 
drill down about half way 
through the connectors and ter¬ 
minals, as shown in Fig. 99. 

Now pry off the connectors 
with the screw driver, as shown 
in Fig. 100. A convenient tool 
to be used here to avoid damag¬ 
ing the top of the box with the 
screw driver is a length of one 
inch angle iron, which is placed 
on the top edge of the box to protect it from the screw driver! 

If any connector is still tight, and you cannot pry it off, with a 
reasonable effort, bore down a little deeper, and it will come off 
easily, provided that the hole which you are drilling is exactly 
over the center of the post and as large as the post. There are 
five things to remember in drilling the connectors and posts: 


punch, and a hammer. 



Fig. 100. Prying Off Connector 
With Screwdriver 









REBUILDING THE BATTERY 


249 


(a) Be sure that the hole is exactly 

•/ 

over the center of the post. 

(b) Do not drill too deep. Make each 
hole just deep enough so that the con¬ 
nector will come, off easily. Fig. 101 
shows a cross section of a post and con¬ 
nector drilled to the proper depth. Notice 
that you need not drill down the whole 
depth of the connector, because the bot¬ 
tom part is not burned to the post. 



Depth. 


(c) Be sure that the drill makes the right sized hole to permit 
the connectors and terminals to be removed easily when drilled 



Fig. 102. Straightening Hole Which Was 
Started Off Center 


half way through. An electric drill will do the work much faster 
than a hand brace. 

(d) Protect the edge of the battery box when you pry up the 
connectors with a screw driver. The angle iron is best for this 
purpose. 















250 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


(e) Remove your drill after the hole is well started and see 
whether the hole is in the center of the post. Should you find 
that it is off center, tilt the brace as shown in Fig. 102, and 
with the end of the drill pointing toward the center of the post 
as you drill, gradually straighten the brace. This will bring the 

hole over the center of the post. 

Having removed the connectors, take a whisk broom and sweep 

all the lead drillings from the 
top of the battery into a box 
kept for lead drillings only, 
Fig. 103, or into the shallow 
box shown in Fig. 98. When 
this box is full, melt the drill¬ 
ings in a large ladle and pour 
off in the burning lead mould. 

3. Heating Up the Sealing 
Compound. Having disconnect¬ 
ed the cells from each other by 
removing the top connectors, 
the next step is to open the joint 
made by the sealing compound 
between the covers and jars. 
Fig. 104 shows the battery 
ready for this step. When cold, 
the compound is a tough sub¬ 
stance that sticks to the cover 
and jar, and hence it must be 
heated until it is so soft that it is easily removed. The tempera¬ 
ture to which the compound must be heated is approximately 200 
degrees Fahrenheit, or below the boiling point of water. There 
are several methods by means of which compound may be heated. 
These are as follows: 

Steam. This is the most popular, and undoubtedly the best 
means of heating the compound. The battery is either placed in 
a special box in which steam is sent, or else steam is sent directly 
into each cell through the filler tube. In the first method the 
compound is heated from the outside, and in the second it is 
heated from the inside of the cell. 



Fig. 103. Brushing Lead Drillings 
Into Box 









REBUILDING THE BATTERY 


251 



Fig. 104. Battery Ready for Steaming 



l<'ig. 105. Drawing Up Plates of First Cell After Battery 

Has Been Steamed 


























252 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


If the battery is placed in the steaming box, about ten minutes 
will be required for the steam to heat up the sealing compound. 
For batteries which use but very little compound, less time is 
required. If steam is sent directly into the cells through the 
filler tubes, five to seven minutes will generally be enough. 

When the battery has been.steamed, place it on the floor be¬ 
tween your feet. Grasp the two posts of one cell with pliers, and 
pull straight up with an even steady pull. If the battery has been 



Fig. 106. Plates Resting on Edge of Jar to Drain 


steamed long enough, the plates will come up easily, carrying 
with them the cover (or covers, if the battery has upper and 
lower covers) to which the compound is sticking, as shown in 
Fig. 105. Do not remove the plates of the other cells until later. 

Rest the plates on the top of the jar just long enough to allow 
most of the acid to drain from them, Fig. 106. While the plates 
are draining, lift, or pry off the cover (or covers if the battery 
has upper and lower covers), as shown in Fig. 107. 

If the battery has double covers, lift off the upper one and then 
scrape the compound from both covers. 











REBUILDING THE BATTERY 


253 


Scrape the compound from the covers immediately, with a warm 
screwdriver or putty knife. Fig. 108. Work quickly while the 
compound is still hot and soft, and comes off easily. As the com¬ 
pound cools it hardens and sticks to the covers and is removed 
with difficulty. If the battery has sealing compound around the 



Fig. 107. Removing Cover While Plates 
Are Draining 


posts, this should also be removed thoroughly, both from the 
cover and from the post. 

When you scrape the compound from the covers, do a good 
job. Do not scrape off most of it, and then leave pieces of it 
here and there. Remove every bit of compound, on the tops, 
edges, sides, and bottoms of the covers. If you need different 
sized putty knives or screw drivers to do this, use them. The 











254 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


time to remove all the compound is while it is still hot, and not 
after it has become hard and cold. 

As soon as you have removed the compound from the covers of 
the first cell, scrape away the compound which may be sticking 
to the top and inside walls of the jar, Fig. 109. Here again you 
must do a good job, and remove all of this compound. If you 



Fig. 108 . Scraping Off the Sealing Compound 

do not do it now, you will have to do it when you try to put the 
plates back into the jar later on, as compound sticking to the 
inside walls of the jar will make it difficult, and even impossible 
to lower the plates into the jar. 

Now draw up the plates of the next cell. Rest the plates on 
the top of the jar just long enough to drain, and then lift off the 
covers, and remove all of the compound, from cover, posts, and 
jar, just as you did in the first cell. The third cell, (and the 
others, if there are more than three cells) are handled just as you 
did the first one. 











REBUILDING THE BATTERY 


255 


Remember that you should lose no time after you have steamed 
the battery. Hot compound is soft, and does not stick to the cov¬ 
ers, jars, and posts and may therefore be removed quickly and 
easily. Cold compound is hard, and sticks to the covers. Draw 
out the plates of only one cell at a time, and clean the compound 



Fig. 109. Scraping Sealing Compound From Upper 

Parts of Jar 


from the cover, posts and jar of that one cell before you draw out 
the plates of the other cells. In this way, the compound on the 
covers of the other cells will remain hotter than if all the plates 
of the battery were drawn out of the jars before any of the com¬ 
pound was removed from the covers. You should have all the 
plates drawn out, and all the compound removed within five min¬ 
utes after taking battery from the Steamer. 

In some batteries, such as the Exide, Yesta, and Prest-O-Lite, 





256 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


the covers are not fastened to the posts with sealing compound. 
The Exide uses a special nut (see page 23) which may be re¬ 
moved before steaming the battery. The Vesta (see page 342), 
and Prest-O-Lite (see page 320) covers are not removed as easily, 
but in these batteries, the compound may be scraped from the 
covers without removing the covers from the posts. This may be 
done in all batteries in which it is not convenient to first remove 
the covers. 

The next step in the rebuilding process is to examine the 
plates to determine their condition, and decide what must be done 
with them. See page 257. 

Hot Water. The electrolyte is poured out of the battery, which 
is then inverted in a vessel of hot water. This method is slower 
than the others, and is more expensive because it requires a larger 
volume of water to be heated. 

Hot Putty Knife and Screwdriver. The compound may be dug 

out with a hot putty knife. This is a slow, unsatisfactory 
method in most instances, especially in those batteries which use 
a considerable amount of sealing compound. With some batteries 
using only a small quantity of compound, a heated putty knife 
may be run around the inside of the jar between the jar and the 
cover. This will break the joint between the cover and the jar, 
and allow the plates to be lifted out. The compound is then 
scraped from covers and inside of jars, heating the knife or screw¬ 
driver whenever it cools off. 

Lead Burning Flame. Any lead burning flame may be used. 
Such a flame may be adjusted to any desired size. Where steam 
is available, a flame should, however, never be used. The tem¬ 
perature of the flame is very high, and the covers, jars, case, posts, 
and vent plugs may be burned and made worthless. Even for the 
expert repairman, a flame is not as satisfactory as steam. 

The Gasoline Torch. This is the most unsatisfactory method, 
and should not be used if possible. The torch gives a hot, spread¬ 
ing flame and it is difficult to prevent the covers, jars, case, etc., 
from being burned. Do not use a gasoline torch if you can pos¬ 
sibly avoid doing so. Alcohol torches are open to the same ob¬ 
jections, and are not satisfactory, even in the hands of a highly 
skilled workman. 













REBUILDING TIIE BATTERY 


257 


If a flame is used for heating the compound, be sure to blow out 
with a hand bellows or compressed air any gas that may 
have gathered above the plates, before you bring the flame, near 
the battery. 

What Must Be Done with the Battery? 

The battery is now open, and in a condition to be examined and 
judgment pronounced upon it. The question now arises, “What 
must be done with it?” In deciding upon this, be honest with 
your customer, put yourself in his place, and do just what you 
would like to have him do if he were the repairman and you the 
car owner. The best battery men occasionally make mistakes in 
their diagnosis of the battery's condition, and the repairs neces¬ 
sary. Experience is the best teacher in this respect, and you will 
in time learn to analyze the condition of a battery quickly. 

You may have some trouble in deciding what must be done 
with the battery,—whether you should merely eliminate any 
short-circuits, and charge it, or put it through several charges and 
discharges, or whether you must cut off some of the plates and 
replace with good ones. 

Handle eve^ cell of a battery that comes in for repairs in the 
same way, even though only one dead cell was found, and the 
others are apparently in good condition. Each cell must be over¬ 
hauled, for all cells are of the same age, and the active materials 
are in about the same condition in all the cells, and one cell just 
happened to give out before the others. If you overhaul only the 
dead cell, the others cells are quite likely to give out soon after 
the battery is put into service again. 

It is absolutely necessary for you to have a standard method 
in working on battery plates. You must divide your work 
into a number of definite steps, and always perform these steps, 
and in the same order each time. If you have a different method 
of procedure for every battery, you will never be successful. The 
preliminary work on the plates should be divided into the follow¬ 
ing steps: 

1. Examine plates to determine whether they can be used 
again. Rules for determining when to discard or use old plates 
are given below. 





258 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


2. If all plates of botli positive and negative groups are to be 
discarded, cut off the old ones and burn new ones on the plate 
strap. 

3. If you find that only some of the plates are to be discarded, 
or if you are not certain as to the condition of the plates, elim¬ 
inate any short circuits which may exist, and give the battery a 
preliminary charge, as described later, before you do any work 
on the plates. Plates that are fully charged are in the best 
possible condition for handling, and you should make it an iron¬ 
clad rule that if some of the plates can be used again always to 
charge a battery before you work on the plates, no matter what 
is to be done to them. If both positives and negatives are to be 
discarded, the preliminary charge should not, of course, be 
given, but if only the negatives, or the negatives and some or 
all of the positives are to be used again, give this preliminary 
charge. Very few batteries will come to your shop in a charged 
condition, and an exhausted battery is not in a good condition 
to be worked on. Charge the whole battery even though only 
one cell is in a very bad condition. This is a method that has 
been tried out thoroughly in practice, not in one or two cases, 
but in thousands. Batteries in all sorts of conditions have been 
rebuilt by this method, and have always given first class service, 
a service which was frequently as good, if not better than that 
given by new batteries. 

To make the examination of the plates, proceed as follows: 

Place an element on a block of wood as shown in Fig. 110. 
With a putty knife or screw driver, carefully pry the plates apart 
so that you can look down between them and make a fair pre¬ 
liminary examination. Whenever possible, make your examina¬ 
tion on the plates without separating the groups or removing the 
old separators. This should be done because: 

(a) Very often the active material is bulged, hard, and sul- 
phated, and if you pull out the old separators and put in new 
ones before charging, the element spreads out so at the bottom 
that it cannot be put back into the jars without first pressing in 
a vise or plate press. Pressing a complete element with the sep¬ 
arators in place should never be done if it can possibly be 
avoided. If it is done the separators should be thrown away 


REBUILDING THE BATTERY 


259 




Fig. 110. Element on Block For Examination 


after you have charged the battery, washed and pressed the neg¬ 
atives, and washed the positives. 

(b) If you put in new separators before giving the battery the 
preliminary charge, the new separators will become clogged up 
with any impurities which may be on the plates, and will prob¬ 
ably be cracked by forcing them between the bulged and sul- 
phated plates. If, however, the separators are clogged with sul¬ 
phate, it is best to throw them away and put in new separators 
before giving the battery its preliminary charge. See (a) above 
about precautions against pressing a complete element. 

If, however, you are not ab¬ 
solutely certain as to the condi¬ 
tion of the plates, draw out a 
few separators. If separators 
stick to the plates, loosen them 
by inserting a putty knife blade 
between them and the plates. 

Removing a few separators will 
permit you to separate the 
groups before removing the rest 

of the separators. To separate pig, Separating the Groups 
the groups, grasp a post in each 

hand, as in Fig. Ill, and work them back and forth, being careful 


















260 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


not to injure the posts, or break off any plates. With the groups 
separated, the remaining separators will either fall out or may be 
easily pushed out with a putty knife. Ordinarily, the groups 
may be separated in this way if the elements have thirteen plates 
or less. 

The natural thing to do at this point is to decide what must be 
done to the plates, and we therefore give a number of rules to 



Fig- 112. Positives from Frozen Vehicle Cell. Note Active Material Stick¬ 
ing To Separator 

help you determine which are to be junked, and which are to 
be used again. Study these rules carefully, and have them fixed 
firmly in your mind so that you can tell instantly what must be 
done with the plates. 

When to Put In New Plates. 

1. If one or more jars are cracked and leak, and positive plates 
have been ruined by freezing, as shown in Fig. 112, and if upon 

drawing out the separators, and separating the positive and neg- 















REBUILDING THE BATTERY 


261 


ative groups the active material drops out of the grids, the only 
way to put the battery in a good condition is to cut off the positive 
plates and burn in good ones. 

Make a careful estimate of 

(a) Cost of new jars.. 

(b) Cost of new plates. 




Fio-s. 113 and 114. Show Diseased Negatives. The Large Ones 
Only Eight Months Old. Active Material Soft, 
Granulated and Blistered 






















262 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


(c) Cost of new case if needed. 

(d) Cost of labor required. 

Try to have the owner present while you are opening his bat¬ 
tery. If, however, he could not wait, and has left, call him up 
and tell him what the total cost will be, and if he has no ob¬ 
jections, go ahead with the job. If he is not entirely satisfied 
with your price, try to get him to come to your shop. Show him 
the battery, explain its condition, tell him just what must be done 
with it, and explain how you made your estimate of the cost 
of the whole job. If you do this, there will never be any mis¬ 
understanding as to cost. Tell him the cost of a new battery, 



Fig. 115. Weak and Cracked Positives 


and let him decide if he wants one. If the cost of repairing is 
within five dollars of the price of a new battery, advise him to 
buy a new one, but allow him to make the decision himself. He 
will then have no cause for complaint. 

2. If the battery is from two to three years old, and the active 
material on the negative plates is bulged, more or less granulated 
(grainy appearance), Figs. 113 and 114, and somewhat disinte¬ 
grated; if the positive plates are weak and brittle around the 
edges, and several are cracked, Fig. 115, and have lost a consid¬ 
erable amount of paste; and if the case has been rotted by the 
acid, the battery should be junked. 

Whenever the active material on the positive plates has shed 
so that it has filled the bottom of the jar until it touches the 
plates, put in a new set of plates. 








REBUILDING THE BATTERY 


263 


Call up the owner, and tell him he needs a new battery. If 
he does not seem pleased, ask him to come to your shop. Then 
show him his battery, and explain its condition. If you are 
courteous and patient, you will sell him a new battery. Other¬ 
wise he will never return. 



Fig. 116. Buckled Plates 



Fig. 117. An Unusually Bad Case of Buckling 


3. If the positive paste is hard, cracked, and shiny, it will 

no longer give good service, and new positive plates should be 
installed. Such a condition is usually caused by charging while 
the electrolyte is below the tops of the plates. 

4. If the positive plates are badly distorted from buckling, 

as in Figs. 116 and 117, discard them, for they will cut through 














































264 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


new separators, if put into commission again, in from two to six 
months. 

5. A battery which has been dry and badly sulphated at some 
past period of its life will have the dry portions covered with a 
white sulphate, the acid line being clearly distinguishable by this 
white color, as shown at A and B in Fig. 110. The positives 
will be warped and its active material badly blistered or fallen 
out. The parts of the separators above the electrolyte will have 



Fig. 118. Corroded, Bulged, and Sulphated Negatives. Disintegrated, 

Rotten Positives 


deteriorated, and new separators should be put in. Cor¬ 
roded and sulphated grids should be looked for carefully, as in 
Fig. 118. In corroded grids, the pastes cannot make good con¬ 
tact with the grids, and the capacity will be lowered in propor¬ 
tion to the extent of the corrosion. No amount of charging will 
remove all of the corrosion, as some of the deposit is insoluble, in¬ 
sulating the grids from the active material, and making it difficult 
for a charging current to pass through. Such a battery will 
become very hot, even with a charging rate below normal. 

r • - - ■' 

Corroded batteries are always sluggish, and very little can be 













REBUILDING THE BATTERY 


265 


done to help them; discard them if possible, as they are trouble 
breeders. It is needless to say that both positives and negatives 
are subject to corrosion. 

If you want to try to bring such plates back to life, try charg¬ 
ing at low rate of about three amperes. The length of time 
required may be several weeks or more. Be careful not to allow 
temperature to rise above 105°. When the specific gravity will 
no longer rise, connect the battery to the discharge board and 
discharge to 1.8 volts per cell with current still flowing, using a 
current equal to about one-eighth to one-tenth of the ampere hour 
capacity. Do this charging and discharging before reassembling. 



Fig. 119. Disintegrated Positives 


Lower the elements into the jars and connect the posts together, 
—positive to negative—as described on page 273. 

6. Rotten and disintegrated positive plates, Figs. 118 and 
119, must be replaced with new plates. The plates have fallen 
to pieces or break at the slightest pressure. Disintegrated plates 
are an indication of impurities or overcharging, providing the 
battery is not old enough to cause disintegration normally,—say 
about eighteen months to two years. The lead grid is converted 
into peroxide of lead and becomes soft. As a result, there is 
nothing to support the paste, and it falls out. Better put in 
new negatives also. 

7. Overcharged batteries have burned and carbonized separa¬ 
tors, turning’ them black and rotting them; the negative paste 
becomes granulated, and is kept in a soft condition, and gradu¬ 
ally -drops from the grids on account of the jolting of the car 











266 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


and overheating. This battery was only three months old when 
it went dead. The owner was a traveling man who made long 
trips of one hundred or two hundred miles several times a week. 
He did not use the starter often during the day, and did not 
drive at night, and the battery was consequently overcharged. 
Notice from the illustration: 

(a) Carbonized, rotten separators. 

(b) Buckled plates cutting through rotten separators. 



Fig. 120. Side and End View of Element From Traveling 

Salesman’s Battery 

(c) Softened active material in negative plates, and dropping 
out of grid. 

8. Dry, hard, and white, long discharged, and badly sul- 
phated plates, Figs. 110 and 118, are practically ruined, though 
if the trouble is not of long standing, the plates may be revived 
somewhat by a long charge at a very low rate, and then dis¬ 
charging at a current equal to about one-eighth to one-tenth 
of the ampere hour capacity of the battery at the discharge 
board. Charge and discharge a battery a number of times, and 
you may be able to put a little “pep” into it. In charging sul- 
phated positive plates, use a low charging rate, and do not 


















REBUILDING THE BATTERY 267 

allow gassing before the end of the charge, or a temperature of 
the electrolyte above 105°F. 

9. When Positive Paste Has Become Softened Considerably. 
This is caused by hot, or high gravity acid. 

10. If a battery case is not held down firmly, or if the ele- 



Fig. 121. Element From a “Slopper.” Element Was Loose in Jar, and Jolt¬ 
ing of Car Caused Paste to Fall Out 


ments are loose in the jars, the plates will jump around when 
the car is in motion. This will break the sealing compound on top 
of the battery, and cause the battery to be a slopper. The active 
materials will be shaken out of the grids, as shown in Fig. 121. 
New plates are required. 



















2G8 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


t 


11. If Battery Has Been Reversed. Often the plates of such 
a battery disintegrate and crumble under the slightest pressure. 
If the reversal is not too far advanced, the plates may be re¬ 
stored (See page 109), but otherwise they should be discarded. 
This condition is recognized by the original negatives being 
brown, and the original positives gray. 

From the foregoing explanations, you see that most of the 
trouble is with the positives: 

(a) Because the positive active material does not stick to¬ 
gether well, but drops off, or sheds easily. 

(b) Because the positives warp or buckle, this causing most 
of the battery troubles. 

(c) Because the positive plate is weaker and is ruined b}^ 
freezing. 

When the Old Flates May be Used Again. 

1. If one or more plates are broken from the plate connect¬ 
ing straps, or the joint between any strap and the plate is poorly 
made. If plates are in good condition, reburn the plate lugs 
to the straps. 

2. Straight Rebuild. If the general condition of the bat- 
tery is good, i. e., the plates straight and not warped, only a 
slight amount of shedding of active material, no white sul¬ 
phate on either plate, the grids not brittle, paste ad¬ 
hering to and firmly touching the grids, the positive paste of 
a chocolate brown color and fairly hard (as determined 
by scratching with blade of a pocket knife), the negative paste 
light gray in color and not blistered or granulated, and the 
plates not too thin, make a straight rebuild. To do this, charge 
the battery, remove any sediment from the bottom of the jar, 
wash and press the negatives, wash the positives, clean the parts, 
insert new separators, and reassemble as directed later. The only 
trouble may be cracked sealing compound, or a broken jar. 
Broken jars should, of course, be replaced. 

3. Badly bulged negative plates, Fig. 122, cause lack of capa¬ 
city because the paste is loose, and does not make good contact 
with the grids. If the paste is not badly granulated (having a 
grainy appearance), the plates can be used again. 



REBUILDING THE BATTERY 


269 


4. Positives which are only slightly warped or buckled may 

be used again. 

5. When the Only Trouble Found Is a Slight Amount of 
Shedding. Positive paste must be of a chocolate brown color and 
fairly hard. Negatives must be a light gray. 

6. When the plates are in a good condition, but one or more 
separators have been worn or cut through, or a jar is cracked. 



Fig. 122. Badly Bulged Negatives. Such Flates Must Be Pressed 

O v O C 


What To Do With the Separators. 

It is the safest plan to put in new separators whenever a bat¬ 
tery is opened, and the groups separated. Separators are the 
weakest part of the battery, and it is absolutely essential that all 
their pores be fully opened so as to allow free passing of electro¬ 
lyte through them. Some of the conditions requiring new sepa¬ 
rators are : 

1. Whenever the pores are closed by any foreign matter what¬ 
soever. Put in new separators whether you can figure out the 
cause of the trouble or not. The separator shown in Fig. 110 
is sulphated clear through above the line B, and is worthless. 
The separator shown in Fig. 112 should not be used again. 

2. When the separators have been cut or “chiseled off” by 
the edge of a buckled plate, Fig. 123. 

3. When a buckling plate or plate with bulged active material 

breaks through the separator, Fig. 123. 

4. When a battery has been used while the level of the elec- 
trolvte has been below the tops of the plates, or the battery has 













270 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


been used in a discharged condition, and lead sulphate has de¬ 
posited on the separators, Fig. 110. 



Fig. 123. Separators Worn Thin and Cut Through on Edges by Buckled 
Plates. Holes Worn Through by Bulged Active Material. Center One Shows 
Cell Was Dry Two Thirds of the Way Down 

5. When a battery has been 
over-heated by overcharging or 
other causes, and the hot acid has 
rotted, burned and carbonized the 
separators, Fig. 124. 

6. When a battery has been 
damaged by the addition of acid 
and the separators have been 
rotted, Fig. 124. 

When you have put in new sep¬ 
arators, and put the battery on 
charge, the specific gravity of the 
electrolyte may go down at first, 
instead of rising. This is because 
the separators may absorb some 
of the acid. If the battery was 
discharged when you put in the 
new separators, the lowering of 
the specific gravity might not 
take place, but in most cases the 
specific gravity will go down, or not change at all. 

Separators kept in stock must be placed in a jar and kept 



Fig. 124. Rotted Separators 

































REBUILDING THE BATTERY 


271 


moist with water. Never allow them to be dry, as this makes 
them very brittle and hard to handle. 

A tight lead lined box may be used for storing separators. 
Instead of covering them with water, a pad of ducking placed in 
the box on the separators and kept wet will keep the separators 
in first class condition for months. The separators must be 
packed closely and compactly and should be standing on end. 
In dry, hot weather, sprinkle the separators occasionally with 
distilled water. 

Find the Cause of Every Trouble. 

The foregoing rules must be studied carefully and be clearly 
tabulated in your mind to be able to tell what to put into com¬ 
mission again and what to discard as junk. It will take time to 
learn how to discriminate, but keep at it persistently and per¬ 
severe, and as you pass judgment on this battery and that bat¬ 
tery, ask yourself such questions as: What put this battery in 
this condition? Why are the negative plates granulated? Why 
are the positive plates buckled? What caused the positive plates 
to disintegrate? Why are the separators black? Why is the 
case rotten when less than a year old? Why did the sealing 
compound crack on top and cause the electrolyte to slop? Why 
did one of the terminal connectors get loose and make a slopper? 
Who is to blame for it, the car manufacturer, the manufacturer 
of the battery, or the owner of the car? Why did this battery 
have to be taken off the car, opened up and rebuilt at 5 months 
old, when the battery taken off a car just the day before had 
been on for 30 months and never had been charged off the car 
but once? There is a reason; find it. Locate the cause of the 
trouble if possible, remove the cause; your customer will appre¬ 
ciate it and tell his friends about it, and this will mean more 
business for you. 

Eliminating “Shorts.” 

If you have decided that some or all of the plates may be used 
again, the next thing to do is to separate any plates that are 
touching, and put the battery on charge. It may be necessary to 
put in new separators in place of the defective ones. Examine the 






272 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


separators carefully. "Whenever you find the pores of the sep¬ 
arators clogged up from any cause whatsoever, put in new sep¬ 
arators before charging. 

1. Sometimes the negative plates are bulged or blistered 
badly and have worn clear through the separators, Fig. 123, and 
touch the positives. In cases of this kind, to save time and 
trouble, separate the groups, press the negatives lightly with 
transite boards between them, as described later, assemble the 
element with new separators, and it is ready for charging. 

2. There is another case where the groups must be separated 
and new separators inserted before they will take charge, and 
that is where the battery has suffered from lack of water and 
has sulphated clear through the separators, Fig. 110. The sep¬ 
arators will be covered with white sulphate. Chemical action is 
very sluggish in such cases. 

If } t ou find that the separa¬ 
tor pores are still open, leave 
the separators in place and pro¬ 
ceed to separate the plates that 
are touching. How? That de¬ 
pends on what insulating ma¬ 
terial you have available that is 
thin enough. If nothing else is 
available, take a piece of new 
dry separator about % inch to 
V '2 inch square, or a piece of 
pasteboard the same size. Use 
a screw driver or putty knife 
to separate the plates far 
enough to insert the little piece 
of insulation as in Fig. 125. 
Free all the shorts in this wav, 
unless you have some old, per¬ 
forated, hard, sheet rubber 
Fig. 125. Clearing Short Circuits available from V esta, Exide or 

vehicle batteries. In this case, 
break off some narrow strips % inch wide or less, put two to¬ 
gether and repeat the operation as above, using the rubber strips 











REBUILDING THE BATTERY 


273 


instead of the pieces of separator. Insert down *4> inch or so 
and bend over and break off. Then repeat with the rest of the 
shorts until no plates are touching. Occasionally the upper edges 
of the plates are shorted, in which case they must be treated 
the same way. 

Charging. 

When you have in this way 
cleared all the “shorts” in 
the elements place the ele¬ 
ments back in the jars in the 
same position as they were 
when you opened the battery, 
and add enough distilled 
water to the electrolyte to 
cover the plates to a depth of 
of one-half inch. 

If the negatives are badly 
sulphated (active material 
very hard), they will charge 
more quickly if all the old 
electrolyte is dumped out and 
the cells filled with distilled 
water before putting the battery on charge. This “water cure” 
is the best for sulphated negatives and will save many plates 

that could otherwise not be 
used again. Make it a rule to 
replace the old electrolyte 
with distilled water if nega¬ 
tives are sulphated. 

The next operation is to 
put the battery on charge. 
Grasp each post in the jaws of 
a pair of gas pliers and work 
the pliers back and forth, Pig. 
126, so as to remove the scale 
and allow the connecting straps to make good contact. Now take 
a knife and cut off the rough edges left in the connecting straps 



Fig. 127. Tapping Connectors in 
Place, Preparatory to Charging After 
Battery Has Been Opened and Shorts 
Removed. 



















274 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


by the drill. Taper the edge, if necessary to go on post. Turn 
the connectors upside down and pound gently in position, Fig. 
127, to make a good connection. This being properly done, the 
battery is ready for charging. Check up the connections to be 
sure they are correct. 

Now put the battery on charge, and charge at about one-third 
of the starting charge rate in amperes. Do not allow the tem¬ 
perature of any cell to rise above 105°F. Continue the charge 
until the electrolyte clears up, and its specific gravity stops 
rising and the plates have a normal color over their entire surface. 
Fully charged positive plates have a chocolate brown color, and 
fully charged negative plates have a light gray color. By hold¬ 
ing an electric light directly over a cell, and looking down, the 
color of both negatives and positives may be determined. Do 
not take the battery off charge until you have obtained these 
results, although it may be necessary to continue the charge for 
two, three, four, or five days. In this preliminary charge it is 
not necessary to bring the gravity up to 1.280, because the 
electrolyte is not to be used again, and the plates will become 
charged completely, regardless of what the gravity is. The essen¬ 
tial thing is to charge until the electrolyte becomes perfectly 
clear, the gravity stops rising, and the plates have the right color. 
The Cadmium test may be used here to determine when the 
plates are charged. If the gravity rises above 1.280 during the 
preliminary charge, adjust it to 1.280 by drawing out some of 
the electrolyte and adding distilled water. The battery must 
stay on charge until you have the desired conditions. If one 
cell does not charge,—that is, if its specific gravity does not rise, 
—you have probably not freed all the shorts, and must take the 
element out of the jar again and carefully inspect it for more 
shorts. 

Right here is where one of the most important questions may 
be asked about rebuilding batteries. Why must you free the 
shorts and put the battery on charge? Why not save time by 
putting in all new separators, sealing the battery, burning on the 
top connectors, and then putting it on charge ? If you have ever 
treated a battery in this way, what results did you get? Why 
did you have a badly unbalanced gravity of electrolyte? How 


REBUILDING THE BATTERY 


275 


could you know what specific gravity electrolyte to put in each 
cell? Perhaps one was charged, one only half charged, and the 
other dead. Suppose the dead cell had impurities in it. How 
could you get rid of them? Suppose the battery showed poor 
capacity on test, what would you do? 

The battery is put on charge because you cannot do a first class 
job of repairing in any other way. The chemical actions caused 
by the charging current passing through the cells for a long 
time have: 

(a) Removed all possible impurities. 

(b) Worked the active materials and put them in a healthy 
condition, just as exercise strengthens your body and improves 
your health. 

(c) Put all the plates in the same condition chemically, so 
that all can be handled further in the same way. 

(d) Put the plates in the best possible condition to be worked 
on. The positive plates are as soft as they can be made to be. 
The spongy lead is in the best condition to press firmly into the 
grids, as described later. 

Washing and Pressing the Negatives. 

To continue the actual work on the battery. The battery being 
fully charged,—the electrolyte clear, the plates of normal color, 
the specific gravity no longer rising,—remove it from the charg¬ 
ing bench and put it on the work bench. Draw each element and 
let drain as in Fig. 106. 

Here again the labelled boxes described on page 138 come in 
handy. Separate one group, remove the separators, and put one 
group in each end of box to keep clean. Separate another group, 
and nest the plates, Fig. 128, the negative with the negative, 
and positive with positive. Separate the third element and put 
groups in the boxes. Pour the old electrolyte out of the jars, 
and wash out the jars as described on page 287. You now have 
the plates in the best possible shape for handling. Take the 
boxes containing the plates to the sink. Have the press and 
the transite boards ready for use. 

If, for any reason, you are called away from your work at this 
point to be gone for five minutes, do not leave the fully charged 


276 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 




negatives e x - 
posed t o the 
air, as they will 
become very 
hot and will be 
injured. Cover 
the m w i t h 
water. A one- 
gallon stone or 
earthenware jar 
will hold the 
negative plates 
of a 100 ampere 
hour battery if 
you nest two 

Fig. 188 of the groups. 

You m a y also 

put negatives back in jars from which they were taken, and fill 
with water. 

Now hold a negative group under the faucet, and let a strong 
stream of water run down over each plate so as to wash it 
thoroughly, and to remove 
any foreign matter from the 
plate surfaces. All negative 
groups must be handled in 
exactly the same way so as 
to get the same results in 
each case. 

After you have washed the 
first group, place it on edge 
on a clean board with the 
post down and pointing 
away from you, and the bot¬ 
tom of the group toward 
you. Now insert transite 
boards which are slightly 
larger than the plates, and 
of the exact thickness re- 


Fig. 129. Inserting Transite Boards 
Between Negatives, Preparatory to 
Pressing 


J 




























REBUILDING THE BATTERY 


277 


quired to fill the spaces between plates, Fig. 129. For the stan¬ 
dard Vs inch plates, a 5-16 inch board, or two % inch boards 
should be placed between plates. 

The y$ inch boards are actually more than % inch thick, and 
will give the proper spacing. For thin plates, use % inch boards. 
Do not push the transite boards more than % inch above the 
tops of the plates, and be sure that the boards cover the entire 



-■ ... . - 

plates. Put a board on the outside of each end plate of the 
group. In this way insert the transite boards in each of the 
three negative groups. 

Then place each negative group on the lower jaw of the plate 
press with the post of each group pointing toward you. Three 
groups may be pressed at one time. Bring the top edges of the 
transite boards flush with the front edge of the lower jaw of 
the press, so that no pressure will be applied to the plate lugs. 
See Fig. 130. Pressure applied to the plate lugs will break them 
off. L)C "T 







































278 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


Now screw down the upper jaw of the vise as tightly as you 
can with the handwheel, so as to put as much pressure on the 
plates as possible. Leave the plates in the press for about five 
minutes. Then remove them from the press, take out the tran- 
site boards, and replace the plates in the battery jar from which 
they were removed, and cover with water. They may also be 
placed in a stone or earthenware jar and covered with water, 
especially if there is any work to be done on the jars or case 
of the battery. If the spongy lead of the negatives is firm, they 
may be reassembled in the battery as soon as they have been 
pressed. If, however, the spongy lead is soft and mushy, keep 
the negatives covered with water for 12 to 24 hours. This will 
make them hard and firm. Then remove them from the water 
and dry them in the air. In drying, the plates will become 
heated and will steam. As soon as you notice any steaming, dip 
the plates in water until they are cool. Then remove them from 
the water and continue the drying process. Each time the nega¬ 
tives begin to steam as they dry in the air, dip them in the 
water until they are cool. 

When the negatives are dry, they are ready to be reassembled 
in the battery and prepared for service. Negatives treated in 
this way will give good service for a much longer time than 
they would if not treated in this way. The spongy lead has been 
made firm and elastic. If you have other negatives in your shop 
which are not in use, treat them in the same way and put them 
away for future use, to use in ‘'renters.” Always put them 
through the same process: 

1. Charge them fully. 

2. Press them in the plate press to force the spongy lead back 
into the grids. 

3. Soak them in water, if the spongy lead is soft and mushy, 
for 12 to 24 hours, or even longer until the spongy lead is firm. 
Dry them in the air, dipping them in water whenever they be¬ 
gin to steam and become heated. This will give you negatives 
that will give excellent service and have a long life. Many 
negatives treated in this way will be good for fifteen months to 
two years of additional service, and at the end of that time will 
really justify a second rebuild. The rental batteries should be 



REBUILDING THE BATTERY 


279 


assembled in the same way as those you are rebuilding for the 
owners. 

The importance of pressing negatives cannot be exaggerated. 
Always press the negatives of the batteries which you rebuild. 
Do not do it to half, or three-fourths of the negatives, but to all 
of them. The work takes but a few minutes, and the time could 
not be put to better advantage. The spongy lead of the nega¬ 
tives bulges out and makes very poor contact with the grids as 
a battery becomes discharged. This results in a loss of capacity, 
gradual sulphation of the loose active material, corrosion of the 
grids, failure of the gravity to rise high enough on charge, over¬ 
heating of the battery on charge, gassing before the sulphate 
is reduced to active material with breaking off and roughening of 
the active material, and makes the battery lazy and sluggish in 
action. The spongy lead must make good contact with the grids 
if the battery is to have a long life and give good service. 

No amount of charging will cure a negative with bulged active 
material. Once this material becomes bulged nothing but press¬ 
ing will put it back where it belongs, and until it is pressed back 
into the grids the plates are in a poor condition for service. Even 
if the bulging is but very slight, the plates must be pressed. 

The transite boards require some attention to keep them in a 
good condition. After you have pressed a set of negatives, hold 
each transite board under the faucet, and let the water run 
over it so as to wash it thoroughly. Then set the board up on 
edge and let it dry. If this is done the boards will retain their 
hardness, and will not become soggy. 

Washing Positives. 

If you intend to use some of the positives, they should now be 
washed. If you intend to use all new positives, throw away the 
old ones, of course. The positives should not be held under the 
faucet as the negatives were, because the stream of water will 
wash out much of the positive active material. Rinse the posi¬ 
tives a number of times in a jar of clean water by moving them 
up and down in the water. This will remove impurities from the 
surfaces of the plates and wash off any foreign or loose materials. 
After rinsing each positive group, replace it in the box. 




280 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE 


BATTERY 


Never attempt to straighten badly buckled positives, as the 
bending cannot be done successfully, and the active material will 
not have good contact with the grids. Positives cannot be pressed 
as negatives can, because the positive active material lacks the 
elasticity and toughness of the negative spongy lead. Slightly 
buckled positives may sometimes be stra : ghtened by bending 
them lightly all around the edges with a pair of thin, wide nosed 
pliers. This should be done very carefully, however, and the 
straightening done gradually. If the plates cannot be straight¬ 
ened in this way and the separators do not lie perfectly flat 
against them without pinching at the corners, the plates should 
be discarded, and new ones used in their place. 

This is all the work to be done on the old plates, and those 
which are to be used again are ready to be reassembled in the 
battery. The process of treating the plates should be followed in 
every battery that you rebuild, and the same steps should al¬ 
ways be taken, and in the same order. With one Standard 
method of rebuilding batteries you will do uniformly good work 
and satisfy all your customers. The essential thing for the suc¬ 
cess of your battery business is to learn the Standard method and 
use it. Do not rush a battery through your shop, and leave out 
some of the steps of the process, even though the owner may be 
in a hurry. If you have a good stock of rental batteries you can 
put one on his car and keep it there until you have done as good 
a job of rebuilding on his battery as you possibly can. Remem¬ 
ber that the Standard method which has been described lias not 
simply been figured out as being a good method. This method 
has been worked out in the actual rebuilding of thousands and 
thousands of batteries of all makes and in all conditions, and 
has produced batteries full of life and power, ready to give one 
to two years more of good, reliable service. 

Burning on Plates. 


When you put new plates into a battery, or find some of the 
plates broken from the connecting strap, it will be necessary to 
burn the plates to the strap. Frequently you will find plates 
which are otherwise in a good condition broken from the con- 




REBUILDING THE BATTERY 


281 


necting straps. This is most likely to happen when the plates 
have been cast on to the connecting strap instead of being 
burned on. These plates must be burned on. 

New plates are frequently necessary. From Pages 260 to 269 
you see that new plates are required under the following condi¬ 
tions : 

(a) Positives. Ruined by freezing; weak and brittle from age, 
large part of active material shed; hard, cracked, and shiny 
active material; badly buckled; charged while dry; rotten and 
disintegrated by impurities; ruined by overcharging; badly sul- 
phated because allowed to stand idle, or used while discharged; 
softened active material; reversed. 

(b) Negatives. Active material granulated, bulged and dis¬ 
integrated ; charged while dry; positives disintegrated by im¬ 
purities ; ruined by overcharging; badly sulphated because al¬ 
lowed to stand idle, or used while discharged; much active 
material lost, and that which is left soft and mushy; negatives 
reversed by charging battery backwards. 

When making plate renewals, never install plates of different 
design in the same group. Always use plates of the type in¬ 
tended for the battery. 

The following directions will explain every step in burning 
plates to the straps. The battery should first be fully charged, 
as already explained. If all the plates in a group are to be dis¬ 
carded, clamp the post in a vise, being careful not to crack the 
hard rubber shell if one is on it, or to damage the threads on 
posts such as the Exide or to draw up the vise so tightly as to 
crush the post. Then saw off all the old plates with a new 
coarse toothed hack-saw, a sharp key hole saw, or any good 
saw which has a wide set, close to the post. This separates the 
entire group of plates from the post in one short operation. This 
method is much better than the old one of sawing the plates off 
below the connecting strap, and sawing or punching the old plate 
ends out of the strap. 

Always bear in mind that surfaces to be fused or melted to¬ 
gether must be clean and free from scale, corrosion, dirt, or 
grease if you want to do a first class job. Therefore clean the 
surfaces which are to be melted together with a sharp rasp. 




282 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


Now set the new plates in the rack, Fig. 56, and set the ad¬ 
justable “comb” E, so that the tops of the lugs on the plates 
extend above it a distance equal to the thickness of that part 
of the plate strap which is still attached to the post. With the 
plate lugs in the slots of the guide bar, put the bar shown at D 
in Fig. 56 in place. Tie some asbestos around the post, and put 
in position as shown, one edge resting on the bar D, and the other 
held up by two wooden wedges as shown. Next place the U- 



Fig. 131. Sawing Slot in Plate Strap 


shaped iron guard around the ends of the plate lugs, and the 
post, as shown at A and B in Fig. 56. This prevents the melted 
lead from running off. 

Now apply your lead burning flame, and heat up the ends 
of the plate lugs and the edge of the part of the strap attached 
to the post, until they begin to melt. Then melt in burning lead 
until the tops of the plate lugs are just covered. This will give 
you a perfect joint between the post and the plates, and will 
require much less time than if you had sawed off all the plates 
below the connecting strap, and had sawed out the ends of the 
plate lugs. 

Keep your flame running back and forth across the tops of 











REBUILDING THE BATTERY 


283 

the plate lugs, and the edge of the strap, so as not to have one 
pait melted while other parts are still cold. If you see any par¬ 
ticles of dirt on the lugs or strap, remove them with the end of 
a three-cornered file or other pointed tool. Such particles will 
be heated red hot by the flame, and may thus be seen. Occa¬ 
sionally raise the flame straight up from the work for an instant 
to prevent too rapid heating. Finish the burning with the flame, 
not with a file or wire brush. 

If one or two of the outside plates only are to be renewed, 



Fig. 132. Slotting Saw, a Group With Two Plates Cut Off, and Slots in 

Strap For New Plates 

saw these off just below the connecting strap. If one or more of 
the inner plates are to be removed from the group, grasp the 
plate lug near the connecting strap with a pair of long and rather 
flat nosed pliers. Bend the plate back and forth with the pliers 
until it breaks off. Battery manufacturers make and sell special 
plate punchers for removing individual plates, and these may be 
used instead of slotting with a saw. 

Having removed the defective plates, saw slots in the strap, 
Fig. 131, exactly in the same place where the old lug was burned 
in. Make the slot of the proper depth for the lug of the new 
plate. Fig. 132 shows the slotting saw, the group near the vise, 
and the defective plates to one side. Two regular slotting saws 









284 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


are placed in an ordinary hack saw frame*so as to saw the full 
width of the slot in one operation. 

Fig. 133 shows the method of lengthening a plate lug. It 
w T ill be necessary to lengthen the lugs on plates which have been 
broken from the strap, but which are otherwise in a good con¬ 
dition, and are to be used again. For a guide use a piece of % 
inch thick strap iron, % to 1 inch wide. Cut notches in this 
iron haying the same width as the plate lug which is to be 



Fig. 133. Extending Lug on Plate 


lengthened, and put the iron and the plate on a sheet of asbestos. 
Melt the lead in the notch until the desired length is obtained. 

Mount the group and the new plate in the burning rack, similar 
to the way shown in Fig. 56, with the lug of the new plates 
fitting in the slots which you sawed in the connecting strap. 
Clean all the surfaces which are to be melted together, and melt 
in the burning lead as previously described. 

ft 

Work on the Jars. 

The work on the jars consists of removing any sediment which 
may have collected, washing out all dirt, and replacing leaky 
jars. The removal of sediment and washing should be done 









REBUILDING THE BATTERY 


285 


after the preliminary charge has been given and the old electro- 
lyte poured out unless the preliminary charge was given with 
distilled water in the jars. The old electrolyte need not be poured 
down the sewer, but may be kept in stone or earthenware jars 
and used later in making electrical tests to locate leaky jars. 


Testing Jars. 

Inspect each jar carefully under a strong light for cracks and 
leaks. If you know which jar is leaky by having filled each cell 
with water up to the correct level, when you made the first exam¬ 
ination of the battery, and then having it allowed to stand over 



night to see if the electrolyte in any cell has dropped below the 
tops of the plates, no tests are necessary, but if you are in doubt 
as to which jar, if any, is leaky, you must make tests to deter¬ 
mine which jar is leaky. If you know that there is no leaky 
jar, because of the bottom of the case not being acid eaten and 
rotted, it is, of course, not necessary to test the jars. 

The test consists in filling the jar within about an inch of the 
top with old or weak electrolyte, partly immersing the jar in a 
tank which also contains electrolyte, and applying a voltage of 
310 or 220 between the electrolyte in the jar and the electrolyte 
in the tank in which the jar is partly immersed. If current 
flows, this indicates that the jar is leaky. 

Fig. 134 shows the principle of the test. A suitable box,—an 
old battery case will do,—is lined with sheet lead, and the lead 





















286 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


lining is connected to either side of the 110 or 220 volt line. The 
box is then partly filled with weak electrolyte. The jar to be 
tested is filled to within about one inch of the top with weak 
electrolyte. The jar is immersed to within about an inch of its 
top in the box. The top part of the jar must be perfectly dry 
when the test is made, or else the current will go through any 
electrolyte which may be wetting the walls of the jar. A lead 
strip or rod, which is connected to the other side of the 110 or 
220 volt line, through one or two incandescent lamps as shown, 
is inserted in the jar. If there is a leak in the jar, the lamps will 
burn, and the jar must be discarded. If the lamps do not light, 
the jar does not leak. 

Instead of using a lead lined box, a stone or earthenware jar 
may be used. A sheet of lead should be placed in this jar, being 
bent into a circular shape to fit the inside of the jar, and con¬ 
nected to either side of the line. The lead rod or sheet which is 
inserted in the jar may be mounted on a handle for convenience 
in making the test. The details of the testing outfit may, of 
course, be varied according to what material is available for 
use. The lamps should be suitably mounted on the wall above 
the tester. 

The test may also be made without removing the jar. If the 
lead lined box be made two feet long, the entire battery may be 
set in the box so that the electrolyte in the box comes within 
an inch of the top of the battery case. Fill each jar with weak 
electrolyte and make the test as before. If this is done, how¬ 
ever, remove the battery case immediately after making the test 
and wipe the case dry with a cloth. To make the test in this way, 
the case must be considerably acid eaten in order to have a cir¬ 
cuit through the case. 

Removing Defective Jars. 

The method of removing the jars from the case depends on 
the battery. In some batteries the jars are set in sealing com¬ 
pound. To remove a jar from such a battery, put the steam 
hose from your steamer outfit into the jar, cover up the top of the 
jar with rags, and steam the jar for about five minptes. Another 




REBUILDING THE BATTERY 


287 


way is to fill the jar with boiling hot water and let it stand 
for fully five minutes. Either of these methods will soften the 
sealing compound around the jar so that the jar may be pulled 
out. To remove the jar, grasp two sides of the jar with two 
pairs of long, flat nosed pliers and pull straight up with a long, 
steady pull. Have the new jar at hand and push it into the 
place of the old one as soon as the latter is removed. The new 
jar should first be steamed to soften it somewhat. Press down 
steadily on the new jar until its top is flush with the tops of the 
other jars. 

Some batteries do not use sealing compound around the jars, 
but simply use thin wooden wedges to hold the jars in place, or 
have bolts running through opposite faces of the case by means 
of which the sides are pressed against the jars to hold them in 
place. The jars of such batteries may be removed without heat¬ 
ing, by removing the wedges or loosening the bolts, as the case 
may be, and lifting out the jars with pliers, as before. New 
jars should be steamed for several minutes before being put in 
the case. When you put jars into such batteries, do not apply 
too much pressure to them, as they may be cracked by the pres¬ 
sure, or the jar may be squeezed Out of shape, and the assembling 
process made difficult. 


Repairing the Case. 

Empty the old acid from the 
jars, take the case to the sink 
(or tub), and wash out all the 
sediment, Fig. 135. With the 
pipe shown in Fig. 46, you have 
both hands free to hold the case, 
as the water is controlled by a 
foot operated spring cock. 

If the case needs repairing, 
now is the time to do it. If the 
case is rotten at top, patch it 
with good wood. If the top and 
bottom are so rotten that consid- 



Fig. 135. Washing Sediment 
From Jars. Water Supply Con¬ 
trolled by Foot Vajve 












288 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


erable time will be required to repair it, advise the owner to buy 
a new case. Sometimes the top of the case can be greatly im¬ 
proved by straightening the side edges with a small smooth¬ 
ing plane, and sometimes a % inch strip or more fitted all 
along the edge is necessary for a good job. Handles that have 
been pulled, rotted, or corroded oft’ make disagreeable repair 
jobs, but a satisfactory job can be done unless the end of the 
case has been pulled off or rotted. Sometimes the handle will 
hold in place until the battery is worn out by old age if three 
or four extra holes are bored and countersunk in the handle 
where the wood is solid, and common wood screws, size 12, % 
or % inch long, used to fasten the handle in place. Sometimes 
it will be necessary to put in one half of a new end, the handle 
being fastened to the new piece with brass bolts and nuts before 
it is put into place. Sometimes you can do a good job by using 
a plate of sheet iron 1-16 inch thick, and 4 inches wide, and as 
long as the end of the case is wide. Rivet the handle to this 
plate with stove-pipe, or copper rivets, and then fasten the plate 
to the case with No. 12 wood screws, % inch long. 

If the old case is good enough to use again, soak it for several 
hours in a solution of washing soda in water to neutralize any 
acid which may have been spilled on it, or which may be spilled on 
it later. After soaking the case, rinse it in water, and allow 
it to dry thoroughly. Then paint the case carefully with hot 
asphaltum paint. 


REASSEMBLING THE BATTERY. 

Reassembling the Elements. 

Take a negative group and put it on edge on a board, with 
post away from you, and lower edge toward you. Examine the 
“hold down” blocks, if the battery uses such blocks. If one side 
has been worn slightly by the separators but the block is other¬ 
wise in a good condition, turn it over, and place worn side to¬ 
ward the top; if any hold down is soft and rotten, replace it 
with a new one. Always make sure that the hold downs are in 
good condition, and are securely fastened. ' 

Mesh a positive and a negative group and place in position as 



REBUILDING THE BATTERY 


289 



Fig. 136. Putting In New Separators 



in Fig. 186. The groups are now ready for the separators. Take 
six moist separators from your stock in your left hand and bend 

as shown in Fig. 186. Take 
one with your right hand 
and slip it into position 
from the bottom in the 
middle of the group, with 
the grooved side toward 
the positive plate, as in 
Fig. 136. Take another 
separator from your left 
hand and slip it into posi¬ 
tion on the opposite side 
of the positive against 
which your first separator 
was placed. In this way, 
put in the six separators 
which you are holding in 
your left hand, with the 
grooved side toward the 
positives, working out¬ 
ward in both directions 
from the center. The 
grooves must, of course 
extend from the top to the 
bottom of the plate. 

Fig. 137. Trying on a Top Cover Now grasp the element 










290 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


in both hands, and set it right side np on the block, giving it a 
slight jar to bring the bottoms of the plates and separators on a 


level. 




Next take a cover, and try it on 
the posts, Fig. 137. Pull the groups 
apart slightly, if necessary, before in¬ 
serting any more separators, so that 
the cover fits exactly over the posts, 
Fig. 138. See that the separators ex¬ 
tend the same distance beyond each 
side of the plates. You may take a 
stick, about 10 inches long, 1% inches 
wide, and % inch thick, and tap the 
separators gently, Fig. 139, to even 
them up. If you put in too many 
separators before trying on the co' r er, 
the plates may become so tight that 
you may not be able to shift them to 
make the cover fit the posts or you 
may not be able to shift the sepa¬ 
rators to their proper positions. It 
is therefore best to put in only 
enough separators to hold the groups together and so they can 
be handled and yet remain in their proper position when set up 
on the block. 'Without sepa¬ 
rators, the posts will not re¬ 
main in position. 

With the element reassem¬ 
bled, and the remaining sepa¬ 
rators in their proper positions, 
see that all the plates are level 
on bottom, and no foreign mat¬ 
ter sticking to them. Place the 
element in box shown in Fig. 

128 to keep clean. Reassem¬ 
ble the other elements in exact¬ 
ly the same way, and put them 

in the box. The elements are , Fl »- 139 * Tapping Separators Gen- 
, . . . . . tly to Make Them Even on Both 

now ready to be put in the jars, sides of Plates 


Fig. 138. Getting Posts 
in Correct Position to Make 
Cover Fit. Only a Few Sep¬ 
arators Are in Place 














REBUILDING THE BATTERY 


291 


Putting Elements in Jars. 


Steam the jars in the steamer for about five minutes to soften 
them somewhat, so that there will be no danger of breaking a 
jar when you put in the elements. 

With the case ready, look for the “ P” or “POS” mark 

on it. Place the case so that this mark is toward you. Grip 
an element near the bottom in order to prevent the plates from 
spreading, and put it in the jar nearest the mark, with the posi¬ 
tive post toward you, next to the mark. Put an element in the 
next jar so that the negative post is toward you. Put an ele¬ 
ment in the next jar so that the positive post is toward you, 
and so on. The elements are correctly placed when each con 
necting strap connects a positive to a negative post. If the case 
has no mark on it, reassemble exactly according to the diagram 
you made on the tag before you opened the battery. 

If an element fits loosely in the jar, it must be tightened. The 
best way to do this is to put one or more separators on one or both 
sides of the element before putting it in the jar, Pig. 140. If 
you leave the elements loose 
in the jars, the jolting of the car 
will soon crack the sealing com¬ 
pound, and you will have a 
“stopper” on your hands. 

If element fits very tight, be 
sure that the corners of the 
plate straps have been rounded 
off and trimmed flush with out¬ 
side negatives. Be sure also 
that there is no compound stick¬ 
ing to the inside of jars. Take 
care not to break the jar by 
forcing in a tight fitting element 
when the jar is cold and stiff. 

Filling Jars with Electrolyte. 



With all the elements in place 
in the jars, the next step is to 


Fig. 140. Tightening Element 
in Jar by Placing a Separator on 
Outside Negative. 








292 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


fill the jars with electrolyte. It has been found from hundreds 
of battery jobs that it is best to fill the jars with electrolyte be¬ 
fore the covers are put on, or the top connectors burned in. 
There are several reasons for this: 

(a) Remember that the plates are fully charged. If the nega¬ 
tives are now exposed to the air while putting on covers and burn¬ 
ing in the top connectors, they will become very hot and may be 
ruined. 

(b) In sealing the battery, compound may run down into the 
jar. If there is no electrolyte in the jar, the compound runs 
down over the plates. On the other hand, if the jar has been 
filled with electrolyte, any compound which runs into the jar 
cools as soon as it strikes the electrolyte, and floats on the surface 
of the electrolyte, instead of going down between the plates. 

(c) When lead burning without electrolyte in the jars the 
compound around the posts often melts. The electrolyte helps 
in keeping the post cool and prevents the melting of the sealing 
compound. 

Use 1.400 Acid. 

If you have followed the directions carefully, and have there¬ 
fore freed all the shorts, have thoroughly charged the plates, 
have washed and pressed the negative groups, have washed the 
positives, have then added any new plates which were needed, 
and have put in new separators, use 1.400 specific gravity electro¬ 
lyte. This is necessary because washing the plates removed 
some of the acid, and the new separators will absorb enough acid 
so that the specific gravity after charging will be about 1.280. 

The final specific gravity must be 1.280. In measuring the 
specific gravity the temperature must be about 70°F, or else 
corrections must be made. For every three degrees above 70°, 
add one point (.001) to the reading you obtain on the hydrometer. 
For every three degrees under 70°, subtract one point (.001) from 
the reading you obtain on the hydrometer. For instance, if you 
read a specific gravity of 1.275, and find that the temperature of 

82—70 

the electrolyte is 82°F, add (-=4) four points (1.275+.004), 

3 

which gives 1.279, which is what the specific gravity of the elec- 






REBUILDING THE BATTERY 


293 


trolyte would be if its temperature were lowered to 70°. The 
reason this is done is that when we speak of an electrolyte of a 
certain specific gravity, say 1.280, we mean that this is its specific 
gravity when its temperature is 70°F. AYe must therefore make 
the temperature correction if the temperature of the electrolyte is 
much higher or lower than 70°F. 

Putting on The Covers. 

The next operation is a particular one, and must be done prop¬ 
erly, or you will come to grief. Get the box containing the 
covers and connectors for the battery you are working on; take 
the covers, and clean them thoroughly. There are several ways 
to clean them. If you have gasoline at hand, dip a brush in it and 
scrub off the compound. The covers may also be cleaned off 
with boiling water, but even after you have used the hot water, 
it will be necessary to wipe off the covers with gasoline. An¬ 
other way to soften any compound which may be sticking to 
them, is to put the covers in the Battery Steamer and steam 
them for about ten minutes. This will also heat the covers and 
make them limp so that they may be handled without breaking. 

If the covers fit snugly all around the inside of the jars so that 
there is no crack which will allow the compound to run down on 
the elements, all is well and good. If, however, there are cracks 
large enough to put a small, thin putty knife in, you must close 
them. If the cracks are due to the tops of the jars being bent 
out of shape, heat the tops with a soft flame until they are limp, 

I (be careful not to burn them). Now, with short, thin wedges of 
wood, (new dry separators generally answer the purpose), crowd 
down on the outside edges of the jar, until you have the upper 
edge of jars straight and even all around. If the jars are set in 
compound, take a hot screwdriver and remove the compound 
from between the jar and case near the top. If the cracks be¬ 
tween cover and jar still remain, calk them with asbestos pack¬ 
ing, tow, or ordinary wrapping string. Do not use too much 
packing;—just enough to close the cracks is sufficient. When 
this is done, see that the top of the case is perfectly level, so that 
when the compound is poured in, it will settle level all around 
the upper edge of the case. 




294 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


Sealing Compounds. 

There are many grades of compounds, and the kind to use must 
be determined by the type of battery to be sealed. There is no 
question but that a poor grade used as carefully as possible will 
soon crack and produce a stopper. A battery carelessly sealed 
with the best compound is no better. 

The three imperative conditions for a permanent lasting job* 
are: 

1. Use the best quality of the proper kind of compound for 
sealing the battery on hand. 

2. All surfaces that the compound comes in contact with must 
be free from acid and absolutely clean and dry. 

3. The sealing must be done conscientiously and all details 
properly attended to step by step, and all work done in a work¬ 
manlike manner. 

With respect to sealing, batteries may be divided into two gen 
eral classes. First, the battery with a considerable bulk of seal¬ 
ing compound. This type of battery generally has a lower and 
an upper cover, the filler tube being attached or removable, de¬ 
pending on the design. The compound is poured on top of the 
lower cover and around the filler tube, and when it is hard, 
the top covers are put on. Now with this type most of the bat¬ 
teries have a thin hard rubber shell shrunk on the post where the 
compound comes in contact with it; this hard rubber shell usually 
has several shallow grooves around it which increase its holding 
power. This is good construction provided everything else is 
normal and the work properly done with a good sticky compound. 
There are a few single cover batteries with connecting straps close 
to top of covers, and the compound is poured over the top of the 
straps. See Fig. 176. 

The second general type consists of those single cover batteries 
that have small channels or spaces around the covers next to the 
jars and have a threaded post with nuts to screw down on cov¬ 
ers to hold in position, or some special means of holding the cov¬ 
ers in position. This type of battery is the most common type, and 
when properly built makes a very satisfactory battery. Of course, 
in rebuilding this kind of battery, just as in all kinds of repair 



REBUILDING THE BATTERY 


295 


work, if the job is worth doing at all, do it as well as yon possi¬ 
bly can. 

Pitch is sticky stuff. The best way to handle it is to melt it and 
strain it through some window screen wire into a small, narrow, 
long box and keep it covered. The best tool to take some pitch 
out of box is a chisel made of a piece of old flat spring, or file. 
Heat one end red hot, and hammer to taper point, grind square 
and sharpen. Then, when you want some pitch, heat the sharp 
edge of the chisel and cut out only as much as you need. 

When pitch burns on bottom of pan when you are heating it, 
clean it all off, throw it away, and put in fresh pitch, or you will 
not be able to melt it thin enough to do a good job. 

Compound in bulk or in thin iron barrels can be cut into small 
pieces with a hatchet or hand ax. To cut 
off a piece in hot weather, strike it a 
quick hard blow in the same place once 
or twice, and a piece will crack off. 

Sealing the Battery. 

The following instructions apply to 
batteries having double covers. These 
are more difficult to seal than the single 
cover batteries. If you can seal the 
double cover batteries well, the single 
cover batteries will give you no trouble. 

Always start the fire under the com¬ 
pound before you are ready to use it, 
and turn the fire lower after it has 
melted, so as not to have it too hot at 
the time of pouring. If you have a special long-nosed pouring 
ladle, fill it with compound by dipping in the pot, or by pouring 
compound from a closed vessel. If you heat the compound in an 
iron kettle, pour it directly into pouring ladle, using just about 
enough for the first pouring. The compound should not be too 
hot, as injury to the battery will result from its use. 

Before sealing, always wipe the surfaces to be sealed with a 



Fig. 

pound 

Covers 


141. 

on 


Pouring 
Top of 


Com- 

Lower 









296 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 



ON FIRST POURING, &RING CONFOUND 
UP FLUSH WITH TOP OF JAR. 

Fig. 142 


rag wet with ammonia or soda solution, rinsed with water, and 
wiped dry with a rag or waste. If you fail to do this the com¬ 
pound will not stick well, and a top leak may develop. 

Pour compound on the lower covers, as in Pig. 141. Use enough 

to fill the case just over the tops of 
the jars, Fig. 142. Then pour the 
rest of the compound back in com¬ 
pound vessel or kettle. To com¬ 
plete the job, and make as good a 
job as possible, take a small hot 
lead burning flame and run it 
around the edges of case, tops of 
jars, and around the posts until the 
compound runs and makes a good 
contact all around. If you have an 
electric fan, let it blow on the com¬ 
pound a few minutes to cool it, as 
in Fig. 143. Then, with safety, the 
compound used for the second pouring may be hotter and thinner 
than the first. 

Fill the pouring ladle with compound which is thinner than 
that used in the first pouring, and pour within 1/16 inch of the 
top of the case, being careful to get in just enough, so that after 



Fig. 143. Cooling Compound 
With Electric Fan 





























































REBUILDING THE BATTERY 


297 


it lias cooled, the covers will press down exactly even with the 
top of the case, Fig. 144. It will require some experience to do 
this, but you will soon learn just how much to use. 

As soon as you have finished pouring, run the flame all around 
the edges of the case and around the post, being very careful not 
to injure any of the filler tubes. A small, hot-pointed flame 
should be used. Now turn on the fan again to cool the compound. 

While the compound is cooling, get the connecting straps and 
terminal connectors, put them in a two-quart granite stewpan, 



ON second Pouring brin<5 cotAFoo^o 

WITH ] /\<b |N£H OF-TOP OP 


Fig. 144 

just barely cover with water, and sprinkle a table-spoon of wash¬ 
ing soda over them. Set the stewpan over the fire and bring 
water to boiling point. Then pour the water on some spot on a 
bench or floor where the acid has been spilled. This helps to neu¬ 
tralize the acid and keep it from injuring the wood or cement. 
Rinse off the connectors and wipe them dry with a cloth, or heat 
them to dry them. 

Now take the top covers, which must be absolutely clean and 
dry, and spread a thin coat of vaseline over the top only, wiping 
off any vaseline from the beveled edges. Place these covers right 
side up on a clean board and heat perfectly limp with a large, 
spreading blow torch flame. Never apply this flame to the under 
side of the top covers. The purpose is to get the covers on top of 




































298 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 




Fig. 


145. Pressing Covers Down to Make 
Them Level With Top of Case 


the battery absolutely 
level, and exactly even 
with the top of the 
case all around it, and 
to have them sticking 
firmly to the com¬ 
pound. There is not 
an operation in repair¬ 
ing and rebuilding 
batteries that requires 
greater care than this 
one, that will show as 
clearly just what kind 
of a workman you 
are, or will count as 
much in appearance for a finished job. If you are careless with 
any of the detail, if just one bump appears on top, if one top is 
warped, if one cover sticks 
above top of case, try as yon 
may, you never can cover it up, 
and show you are a first-class 
workman. See that you have 
these four conditions, and you 
should not have any difficulty 
after a little experience: 

1. You must have just enough 
compound on top to allow the 
top covers to be pressed down 
exactly even with upper edge 
of case. 

2. The top covers must be 
absolutely clean and have a 
thin coat of vaseline over their 
top, but none on the bevel edge. 

3. A good sized spreading 
flame to heat quickly and even¬ 
ly the tops to a perfectly limp 

condition without burning or Fi g- 146 - Pressing Covers Down 
i . ,, Around Posts to Make Them Flush 

scorching them. With Top of Case . 

















REBUILDING THE BATTERY 


299 




4. Procure a piece of % inch board l 1 /^ inches wide and just 
long enough to go between handles of battery you are working 
on. Spread a thin film of oil or vaseline all over it. 

Having heated the covers and also _ 

the top surface of the compound 
until it is sticky so that the covers 
may be put down far enough and ad¬ 
here firmly to it, place the covers in 
position. Then press the covers down 
firmly with piece of oiled wood, as in 
Fig. 145, applying the wood sidewise 
and lengthwise of case until the top 
of cover is exactly even with the top 
of the case. It may be necessary to 
use the wood on end around the filler 
tubes and posts as in Fig. 146, to get 
that part of the cover level. If the 
compound comes up between covers 


Fig. 147. Wiping Bottom 
of Spoon Filled With Seal¬ 
ing Compound 


and around the edges of the case, and interferes with the use of 
the wood, clean it out with a screwdriver. You can then finish 
without smearing any compound on the covers. 

When you have removed 
the excess compound from 
the cracks around the 
edges of the covers with 
the screwdriver, take a 
large iron spoon which 
has the end bent into a 
pouring lip, and dip up 
from % to % of a spoon¬ 
ful of melted compound 
(not too hot). Wipe off 
the bottom of the spoon, 
Fig. 147, and pour a small 
stream of compound even- 

Fig. 148. Filling Cracks Around Covers ly in all the cracks around 
With Sealing Compound the edges of the covers 

until they are full, as in Fig. 148. Do not hold the spoon too 











300 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


high, and do not smear or drop any compound on top of battery 
or on the posts. No harm is done if a little runs over the outside 
of the case, except that it requires a little time to clean it off. 
A small teapot may be used instead of the spoon. If you have 
the compound at the right temperature, and do not put in too 
much at a time, you will obtain good results, but you should 
take care not to spill the compound over covers or case. 

After the last compound has cooled,—this requires only a feAV 
minutes,—take a putty knife, and scrape off all the surplus com¬ 
pound, making it even with the top of the covers and case, Fig. 
149. Be careful not to dig into a soft place in the compound with 
the putty knife. If you have done your work right, and have 
followed directions explicitly, yon have scraped off the compound 
with one sweep of the putty knife over each crack, leaving the 
compound smooth and level. You will be surprised to see how 

finished the battery looks. 

Some workmen pour hot 
compound clear to the top of 
the case and then hurry to 
put on a cold, dirty, and 
many times a scorched and 
burned top. What happens? 
The underside of the cover, 
coming in contact with the 
hot compound, expands and 
lengthens out, curling the 
top surface beyond redemp¬ 
tion. As you push down one 
corner, another goes up, and 
it is impossible to make the 
covers level. 

Single Cover Batteries. 

Single cover batteries are sealed in a similar manner. The 
covers are put in place before any compound is poured in. Cov 
ers should first be steamed to make them soft and pliable. After 
the compound is poured it is finished off with a hot putty 






















REBUILDING THE BATTERY 


301 


knife, and a flame is run over the compound to give it a glossy 
appearance. 


Burning in the Connecting Straps. 

With the covers in place, the next operation is to burn in the 

top connectors. Place the battery on the floor near the burning 

bench. With a % inch drill, 

clean off the tops of the posts 

with one or two turns of the 

brace, cutting off a clean, 

thin shaving, as in Pig. 

150. Now put battery on 

bench, or on the Batterv 

Turntable. With a chisel, % 

inch or more wide, cut the 

rough edges from the tops 

of the posts, as in Fig. 151. 

Now take a connecting strap 

which is dry and free from 

acid, and put it in a vise, as 

in Fig. 152. Clean it with a 

wire brush, then clean the 

openings with a knife. Finish 

each end of the top of strap 

with a bastard file, as in 

Fig. 153. Place the straps 

in their proper positions on 
,. , , ... . ,, Fig. 150. Cleaning Tops of Posts Pre- 

til e posts, and With a length paratory to Burning In the Connectors 

of two by four wood, pound 

them snugly into position, as in Fig. 154. Be sure the connect¬ 
ing straps are level, and the terminal connectors in the same 
position as when you took the battery off the car. Always test 
the voltage of the battery to make sure that the total voltage 
is equal to two times the number of cells in the battery, this 
showing that you have connected all the cells in series. 

The straps are now ready for burning. Before you bring any 
flame near the battery, remove the vent plugs, and blow out any 








302 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


possible gas with an air hose or hand bellows. Then put a long 
strip of asbestos, 1% inches wide, over the vent holes, Fig. 155. 
or put a 1% inch square of asbestos over each vent hole. These 
serve to protect the filler tubes from the flame, and also keep 
dirt out of the cells. 



Fig. 151. Chiseling Rough Edges From Tops of Posts Before Burning In 



Fig. 152. Brushing Connector Before Burning In 


For burning in the connecting straps yon need strips of burn¬ 


ing lead about fifteen inches long, and from % to % inch diame¬ 
ter. This can be made of old plate straps, connecting straps, and 
terminal connectors. Melt these and run them off in forms. The 
Burning Lead mould is very useful for this purpose, see page 143. 


























REBUILDING THE BATTERY 


303 


In burning on the connectors, use a sharp, pointed, concentrated 
flame, from four to six inches long. Experience will help you 
determine the most suitable 
flame to be used. 

Try the flame on one of the 
joints to be burned and play 
the point of the flame around 
on top of post, holding it at 
the distance which melts the 
lead the quickest. This can 
easily be determined by rais¬ 
ing the flame up and down 
slowly. You will note that there is a certain point of the flame 
which melts the lead more quickly than any other. Keep it at this 
distance, and as soon as the top of the post is melted, play the 
flame around and around, melting in lead from your stick of burn¬ 
ing lead as fast as you 
can. Keep it melted all 
around on top of the post, 
building up as fast as you 
can with the melted burn¬ 
ing lead. Continue play¬ 
ing your flame around 
and around, joining the 
melted burning lead with 
the melted inside edge of 
the post, building op un¬ 
til you have enough lead 
to raise the top of the 
post (not the whole top, 
of the connector) evenly, 
1/16 inch above the con¬ 
nector. Do not attempt 
to finish the top with this 
flame and do not let the 
flame touch the outside 
edge of connector. Burn in the rest of the posts in the same way. 
Pig. 155 shows the first stage of the burning completed. 



Fig. 154. Leveling Top Connectors Before 
Burning In 














304 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


Take a wire brush and brush off the tops thoroughly, until they 
are all clean and bright,—then you are ready for the finishing. 
You need a soft flame, just bordering on hissing for finishing. 
Begin directly over center of post just built up. Play the flame 



Fig. 155. First Stage of Burning Completed. Note Strip of Asbestos Over 

Vent Holes 

on the center until the built up post begins to melt; now shake 
the flame outward back and forth until the outer edge of con¬ 
nector melts and the top portion of melted post unites and 
flows to outer edge. Quickly follow around ahead of flowing 



Fig. 156. Second, and Final Stage of Burning Completed 


lead with point of flame until the melted lead has 'united with the 
outer edge all round, the object being to melt the whole top of 
the post only, not melting deep enough to have it break the outer 
edge and run off, b'ut to melt the whole top as quickly as possible 
so that it will flow level all over top of connector. Then instantly 





















REBUILDING THE BATTERY 


305 


raise tiame from it. All this must be done carefully and dexter¬ 
ously to do a first-class job, and you must keep the flame shaking 
around over the top and not hold it in any one place, so as not to 
melt too deep on outer edge or break the outside shell of con¬ 
nector, and allow the lead to run off. Learn to melt just a thin 
layer all over the top of connector, and then with a quick twist 
of the hand, draw the flame off at the heaviest part of the con¬ 
nector, and at the same time raise the hand. If yo'u allow the 
flame to go over the melted lead when you raise it off, it will 
roughen the lead. Sometimes the whole mass becomes too hot 
and the top cannot be made smooth with the flame. Either wait 
until the connector cools, or soften the flame, or both. Finish all 
the tops with a soft flame. 

Fig. 156 shows the second stage of the burning finished. Do 
not spoil the job by brushing it; do such a good job that it will 
not be necessary to brush it. 

Marking the Battery. 

You should have a set of stencil letters about % inch in size, 
and mark every battery you rebuild or repair. Stamp “POS” on 
positive terminal and “NEG” on negative terminal. Then stamp 
your initials, the date that you finished rebuilding the battery, 
and the date that battery left the factory, on the top of the con¬ 
nectors. Record the factory date, and type of battery in a book, 
also your date mark and what was done to the battery. By doing 
this, you will always be able to settle disputes that may arise, 
as you will know when you repaired the battery, and what was 
done. 

To go one step farther, keep a record of condition of plates, 
and number of new plates, if you have used any. Grade the 
plates in three divisions, good, medium and doubtful. The 
“doubtful” division will grow smaller as you become experi¬ 
enced and learn by their appearance the ones to be discarded and 
not used in a rebuilt battery. There is no question that even the 
most experienced man will occasionally make a mistake in judg¬ 
ment, as there is no way of knowing what a battery has been 
subjected to during its life before it is brought to you. 










306 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


Cleaning and Painting the Case. 

The next operation is to thoroughly clean the case; scrape off 
all compound that has been spilled on it, and also any grease or 
dirt. If any grease is on the case, wipe off with rag soaked in 
gasoline. Unless the case is clean, the paint will not dry. Brush 
the sides and end with wire brush; also brush bright the name 
plate. Then coat the case with good asphaltum paint. Any good 
turpentine asphaltum is excellent for this purpose. If it is too 
thick, thin it with turpentine, but be sure to mix well before 
using, as it does not mix readily. Use a rather narrow brush, 
but of good quality. Paint all around the upper edge, first 
drawing the brush straight along the edges, just to the outer 
edges of rubber tops. Now paint the sides, ends and handles, but 
be careful not to cover the nameplate. To finish, put a second, 
and thick coat all around top edge to protect edge of case. Paint 
will soak in around the edge on top of an old case more easily 
than on the body of the case as it is more porous. 

Charging the Rebuilt Battery. 

With the battery completely assembled, the next step is to 
charge it at about one-third of the starting or normal charge rate. 
For batteries having a capacity of 80 ampere hours or more, use 
a current of 5 amperes. Do not start the charge until at least 12 
hours after filling with electrolyte. This allows the electrolyte 
to cool. Then add water to bring electrolyte up to correct level 
if necessary. The specific gravity will probably at first drop to 
1.220-1.240, and will then begin to rise. 

Continue the charge until the specific gravity and voltage do 
not rise during the last 5 hours of the charge. If you have put 
in new elements or new plates charge for at least 96 hours. 

Measure the temperature of the electrolyte occasionally, and if 
it should go above 105°F, either cut down the charging current, 
or take the battery off charge long enough to allow the electrolyte 
to cool below 90°F. 

Adjusting the Electrolyte. 

If the specific gravity of the electrolyte is 1.280 at the end of 
the charge, the battery is ready for testing. If the specific gravity 


REBUILDING THE BATTERY 


307 


is below or above 1.280, draw off as much electrolyte as you can 
with the hydrometer. If the specific gravity is below 1.280, add 
enough 1.400 specific gravity electrolyte with the hydrometer to 
bring the level up to the correct height (about % inch above tops 
of plates). If the specific gravity is above 1.280, add a similar 
amount of distilled water. If the specific gravity is 15 points 
(.015) too low or too high, adjust as directed above. If the 
variation is greater than this, pour out all the electrolyte and add 
fresh 1.280 specific gravity electrolyte. 

After adjusting the electrolyte, continue the charge until the 
gravity of all cells is 1.280, and there is no further change in 
gravity for at least two hours. Then take the battery off charge 
and make a final measurement of the specific gravity. Measure 
the temperature at the same time, and if it varies more than 10° 
above or below 70°, correct the hydrometer readings by adding 
one point (.001 sp. gr.) for each 3 degrees above 70°, and sub¬ 
tracting one point (.001 sp. gr.) for each 3 degrees below 70°. Be 
sure to wipe off any electrolyte which you spilled on the battery 
in adjusting the electrolyte or measuring the specific gravity. 
Use a rag dipped in ammonia, or washing soda solution. 

High Rate Discharge Test. 

Now make a high rate discharge test on the battery, as de¬ 
scribed on page 188. This test will show up any defect in the 
battery, such as a poorly burned joint, or a missing separator. If 
the test gives satisfactory results, the battery is in good condi¬ 
tion, and ready to be put into service. 




CHAPTER 16. 


SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS. 

EXIDE BATTERIES. 

Exide batteries may be classified according to their cover con¬ 
structions as follows: 

1. Batteries with single flange covers, as shown in Figs. 15 



Fig. 157. Exide Battery, Type 3-XC-13-1 


and 157. This class includes types JX, LX, LXR, LXRV, PHC 
SX, and XC. 

2. Batteries with double flange covers, as shown in Fig. 158. 
This class includes types MHA, PHA, KZ, ZA, KXD, LXRE, 
and XE. The cover constructions are described in Chapter 3. 

308 











SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS 


309 


All Exide batteries, except types KXD, LXRE, and XE, have 
burned-in lead top connectors. All types have a removable seal¬ 
ing nut around each post to make a tight joint between the post 



and cell cover, as described on page 23. The special vent plug 
construction described on page 25 is used on all Exide batteries. 
Formerly some Exide batteries had top connectors which were 
bolted to the cell posts, but this construction is now obsolete. 


Fig. 158. Cross Section of Exide Battery With Double Flange Cover 





























































































































310 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


Types KXD, LXRE, and XE have top cell connectors made of 
flexible, lead coated copper strips. 

Types JX, LX, LXR, LXRY, Mil A, PHA, PHC, SX and XC 
have been designed and built to meet the requirements of starting, 
lighting and ignition service for passenger automobiles and power 
boats. 

Types KXD, LXRE, and XE have been especially developed to 
meet the requirements of the starting, lighting and ignition 
service on motor trucks and tractors. 

Typ es KZ and ZA have been produced particularly for motor¬ 
cycle lighting and ignition service. 

Type Numbers. 

The type of an Exide battery is stamped on the battery name 
plate. Thus, on one of the most popular Exide batteries is 
marked Type 3-XC-33-1. Other Exide batteries have different 
numerals and letters in their type numbers, but the numerals 
and letters are always arranged in the same order as given 
above. The first numeral gives the number of cells. The letters 
give the type of cell. The numerals following the letters give 
the n'umber of plates per cell. The last numeral indicates the 
manner of arranging the cells in the battery case. Thus, in the 
example given above, 3-XC-13-1 indicates that there are three 
cells in the battery, that the type of cell is XC, that each cell 
has 13 plates, and that the cells are arranged according to 
method No. 1, this being a side to side assembly. 

Methods of Holding Jars in Case. 

Two methods of holding Exide jars in the battery case are Used: 

1. Types MPIA, PIIA, KXD, LXRE, and XE have the jars sep¬ 
arated by horizontal wooden spacers, there being two spacers 
between adjoining jars. Running horizontally between these 
two spacers is a tie bolt which passes through the case. These 
bolts are tightened after the jars are placed in the case, thus 
pressing the sides of the case against the jars and holding them 
in place. This construction is shown in Pig. 158. 

Types KXD, LXRE, and XE, in addition to the tie bolts, are 


SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS 


311 


secured in the case by sealing compound beneath and around 
the jars. Each cell is provided with two soft rubber buffers 
which are V shaped, and are placed over the ridges in the bottom 
of the jars, thereby minimizing the effect of shocks on the plates 
and separators which rest on the buffers. 

2. In types JX, LX, LXR, LXRY, PHC, SX, and XC, there 
are no spacers between adjoining jars, and the jars simply fit 
tight in the case. Should they not fit tight enough to hold them 
in place securely, thin boards are inserted between the jars and 
the case to pack them in. 

Type ZA has the three sets of plates in one jar, having three 
compartments, with a three compartment cover. 

Opening Exide Batteries. 

1. Drilling Off the Top Connectors. Do this as described on 
page 248. For type ZA batteries use a % inch drill. For all other 
types use a % inch drill. 

2. Removing Plates from Jars. Follow the general instruc¬ 
tions on page 252. 

Types JX, LX, LXR, LXRV, PHC, SX, and XC. In opening 
these batteries, all of which have the single flange cover, you 
may remove each cell complete from the case, and then draw 
out the plates; or you may draw out the plates without taking out 
the jars. To remove the complete cell, heat a thin bladed putty 
knife and work it down all around the outside of the jar. Then 
lift out the complete cell by pulling steadily on the cell posts 
with two pairs of gas pliers. The battery should be placed on 
the floor when* you do this, and you should stand with one 
foot pressed against the side of the case. 

If you do not wish to remove the complete cells, or should the 
jars fit too tight in the case, unseal the covers and remove the 
plates according to the instructions given on page 250. 

Types MHA, PHA, KZ, and ZA. These batteries all have the 
double flanged cover. Several methods may be used in remov¬ 
ing the plates from the jars. In each case, the top of the cell is 
cleaned, gas blown out of the vent holes, and the sealing nuts 
removed before opening the cells. 








First, a flame may be used to soften the sealing compound 
which is placed in the slot formed by the two flanges of the cover. 
If you wish to use a flame, first remove each complete cell from 
the case, loosening the tie bolts that pass through the case to re¬ 
lease the jars. Then lift out each complete cell. Now get two 
strong boards which are about one fourth inch longer than the 


height of the jar. See Fig. 
159. Support the jar on these 
boards by resting the lower 
edge of the sides of the cover 
on the top edge of the boards. 
Then run a moderate flame 
around the outside of the 
flange until the cover is soft, 
and the compound melting. 
Then press down on the cell 
posts with your thumbs, and 
the jar and plates will drop 
free of the cover. The plates 
are then drawn out and rested 
on the top of the jars to drain, 
as usual. 



Another method is to re¬ 
move the cells from the case 
and put them in the battery 
steamer for ten minutes as de¬ 


Fig. 150. Removing Double Flange 
Fxide Cover 


scribed on page 250. Instead of first taking the complete cells out 
the case and then steaming them separately, you may steam the 
entire battery for about ten minutes, and then draw out the plates 
and cover of each cell with gas pliers without removing the jars. 
This method must be used in opening types KXD, LXRE, and 
XE, which have sealing compound 'under the jars. 


Work on Plates, Separators, Jars, and Case. 


Having opened the battery, follow the instructions given on 
pages 257 to 288 for examination of plates and separators, and all 
work on plates, jars, separators, and case. 









SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS 


313 


Reassembling- Plates. 



birst slip the positive and negative groups together without 
separators, then wipe the posts with a rag moistened with 
ammonia, rinse them with water, and dry thoroughly with a 
( lean rag. A ext slip the soft rubber washers over the posts 
and place the cover in position. Lubricate the lead sealing nuts 

with graphite that has been 
mixed to a paste with water. 
Do not use grease or vaseline to 
lubricate these nuts. Then put 
on the sealing nuts and tighten 
them partly with yonr fingers. 

You are now ready to insert 
the separators as directed on 
page 289. Types MHA, PHA, 
PHC, KXD, KZ, LXR, LXRE, 
and LXRY have, in addition to 
the usual wooden separators, 
perforated rubber sheets, which 
should be placed against the 
grooved side of each wooden 
separator before inserting. 
Make a careful examination to 
see that yon have not left out 
any separators. 

When the separators are all 
in place, even them up on each 
side. Then tighten the sealing 
nuts with the special Exide wrench. When you have turned the 
nuts down tight, lock them in place by driving a center punch on 
the threads on the post just above the nut, Fig. 160. This will 
damage the thread and prevent the nut from turning loose. 


Fig. 160 . Upsetting Threads on Ex¬ 
ide Post to Hold Nut in Place 


Putting Plates In Jars. 


The next step is to lower the plates into the jars, as described 
on page 291. In types KXD, LXRE, and XE be sure to first re- 













314 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


place the two soft rubber buffers in the bottom of the jar, one 
over each ridge. 

Filling Jars With Electrolyte. 

As soon as yo'u have an element in place in the jar, fill the 
jar with electrolyte of the proper strength, as described on page 
292, to prevent the separators and plates from drying. The nega¬ 
tives, especially, must be covered with electrolyte to prevent them 
from heating and drying. 

Sealing Exide Battery Covers. 

For Types JX, LX, LXR, LXRV, PHC, SX and XC. 

which have the single flange type of cover, slowly heat the seal¬ 
ing compound until it runs, but 
do not get it so thin that it will 
run down into the cell between 
the cover and jar. Then pour 
it into the channel between 
cover and jar walls. Allow it 
to cool and finish it off flush 
with a hot knife. When pour¬ 
ing, be sure the compound is 
liquid and not lumpy, as in 
such a case a poor seal will re¬ 
sult. A glossy, finished appear¬ 
ance may be given to the com¬ 
pound by passing a flame over 
it after the job is finished. 

For Types KXD, KZ, LXRE, 
MHA, PHA, XE and ZA, which 
have the double flange type of 
cover, have ready a string or worm of sealing compound about 
3-16 inch in diameter, made by rolling between boards some of the 
special compound furnished for the purpose. The cover may or 
may not have been attached to the element, depending on how 
repairs have been made. In either case the procedure is the same 
as far as sealing is concerned. Assuming the element is attached, 



Fig. 161 . Laying “Worm” of Seal¬ 
ing Compound in Exide Double Flange 
Cover 
































SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS 


315 


stand ]t upside down, with the cover resting upon two strips, Fig. 
161. Lay the string of compound all around the cover channel. 
Now turn right side up and insert in the jar, taking care that the 
jar walls enter the cover channels at all points. Apply heat care¬ 
fully to the edges of the cover and gently force cover down. If 
too much compound has been used, so that it squeezes out around 
the cover, scrape off the excess with a hot knife while forcing 
cover down. 


Putting Cells In Case, 

When the covers have all been sealed, put the cells in the case, 
taking care to put the negative and positive posts in their proper 
positions, so that each top connector will connect a positive to a 
negative post. 

In Types MHA, PHA, KXD, LXRE and XE, which have 
wooden spacers between the cells, take care that the spacers are in 
position and then, after cells are in place, tighten the tie bolts 
with a screw driver to clamp the jars. 

In Types JX. LX, LXR, LXRV, SX and XC, the cells should 
fit tight in the case; pack them in with thin boards if necessary. 

Burning on the Top Connectors. 

See instructions on pages 301 to 305. 

Charging After Repairing. 

See also instructions on page 306. 

Not sooner than ten to fifteen hours after filling battery with 
electrolyte, add electrolyte to restore level if it has fallen. 

With filling plugs out, give the valves a quarter turn, bring¬ 
ing them into the position they are in when filling plugs are put 
in place. This is to allow of taking hydrometer readings while 
charging and at the same time prevent flooding, which might 
occur if filling plugs were left out and valves not turned. 





Capacities of Exide Batteries 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


316 


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SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS 

U. S. L. BATTERIES. 


317 


The instructions for rebuilding batteries which have already 
been given, pages 246 to 307, apply also to all U. S. L. batteries. 
In working on U. S. L. batteries, draw out the electrolyte down 
to the tops of the plates so that the electrolyte is below the lower 
end of the filler tube. Then blow out any gas which may have 
collected under the cover with compressed air or bellows. Never 


Vent Hole 



fail to do this, as there is only a small vent hole in the cover 
through which the gas can escape, the filler tubes extending 
down into the electrolyte when the cells are properly filled. 

U. S. L. batteries have lead bushings moulded into the cover. 
These bushings fit around the posts, and are lead burned to the 
posts and top connectors, Fig. 162, thus giving leak proof joints 
between the cover and the posts. In burning on the connectors, 
melt bottom edge of hole first, then top of post and cover bushing, 
and melt in your burning lead slowly. It is important to make a 
perfect joint between the cover bushing and the post so as to 
prevent leaks, and make the IT. S. L. filling device effective. 







































































Capacity of U. 5. L. Batteries 


318 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


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Batteries marked thus (f) are made also with Lighting Type Terminals, Form 127. 



















































































































































Capacity of U. S. L. Batteries 


SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS 


319 




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320 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 

This operation should he performed carefully, as many troubles 
arise from imperfect burning on of the connectors. 


PREST-O-LITE BATTERIES. 

Some Prest-O-Lite batteries have a lead bushing around the 
post, Fig. 163, similar to the U. S. L. batteries, except that this 
bushing is screwed into the cover from below against a soft rub¬ 
ber gasket. This will make a perfectly tight seal, provided that 
you screw the bushing 'up tight. Other Prest-O-Lite batteries 



have a “Peened" post seal, special instructions for which fol¬ 
low. 

The general instructions for rebuilding batteries given on 
pages 246 to 307 apply to Prest-O-Lite batteries in every respect. 
The “Peened” post seal is, however, a special construction, and 
directions for working on this seal are as follows: 

All Prest-O-Lite batteries designated as Types WHN, RIIN, 
BHN, and JEN, have a single moulded cover which is locked 
directly on to the posts of the element. Tins feature is the result, 
of forcing a solid ring of lead from a portion of the post, pro- 















SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS 


321 


jecting above the cover, down into a deep chamber in the top of 
the cover. Figs. 164 and 165 show this construction. 

I his construction makes a solid unit of the cover and element. 



Fig. 164. Prest-O-Lite Element Locked to Cover by Peening Process 

which does away with the sealing compound, washers, nuts, etc., 
for making the acid tight seal around the posts. 

The locking operation requires some special instructions and 
shop equipment for assembly and all repairs which involve re¬ 
moval from and replacement of the cover on the element. 

The majority of battery repairs such as renewal of jars, sepa¬ 
rators, straightening of plates and removal of sediment, can be 









222 


TIIE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 







SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS 


323 


made without separating the cover and element. In such cases 
the connectors are drilled off, compound is softened and removed 
from aro'und the covers and the complete unit is removed from 
the cell. It may be handled throughout the repair as a unit, and 



Fi<r. 166. Reaming Prest-O-Lite Peened Post to Remove Cover 


the cover serves as a bridge to hold the plates of both groups in 
line just as they remain in the jar. 

However, where the cover is broken or must be replaced for 
other reasons, when plates have to be renewed, or the posts have 
been broken off below the cover, the element and cover must be 
separated. 

For separating the cover from the element the Prest-O-Lite 

















324 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


company furnishes two hollow reamers, one for each of the two 
sizes of post used. These reamers fit into any brace or breast 
drill. To remove a cover, set the reamer over the post and turn 
to the right, using moderate pressure, Fig. 166. The reamer will 
cut off the lead ring which fills the chamfer of the cover boss. 
The cover can then be lifted off the post, Fig. 167. 

If you now want to replace this or another cover on the same 



Pig. 167. Removing Prest-O-Lite Cover 


post it must be rebuilt to its original dimensions above the 
shoulder. For this purpose the Prest-O-Lite company furnishes a 
reamer and post builder for each size post. After the cover is 
removed the post must be sawed off about a quarter of an inch 
above the shoulder, and the stub reamed to its original diameter, 
Fig. 168. Then the post builder is tapped down over the post 
to the shoulder and supported by a box or block under the han¬ 
dle. The post is then built up to the correct height with the 
lead burning flame as shown in Fig. 169. 

You are now ready to lock on the cover. The necessarv 
equipment for this operation is a special post peening press, and 











SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS 


325 


two peening tools, one for each size of post. The press com¬ 
plete, Fig. 170, consists of the following parts: 

Peening press, Style B acetylene torch, automatic reducin 
valve, rubber tubing, small post peening tool, large post peenin 
tool. 



Fig. 168 . Reaming Sawed Off Prest-O-Lite Post to Original Diameter 

The automatic reducing valve is made to fit any of the Prest- 
O-Lite acetylene tanks, and reduces the gas pressure to the 
proper value for heating the peening tools. 

The press should be mounted on the wall or a strong column 
with the element support about three feet above the floor. The 
following instructions should be followed exactly in preparing 
the press for work: 


CTQ (jq 
















Fig-. 169. Building Up Posts on Prest-O-Lite Element 

The flame is left burning while the tool is in continuous use, but 
should be turned off or very low when used only occasionally. 

4. When breaking in a new tool, put a little oil in the cavity 
before forcing it over the post. Otherwise, the tool may stick 
to the post. Tools should be kept covered with a film of oil when 
not in use. 

5. If the tool should stick to the post, force it down until 
you are certain that the cover is being slightly compressed. This 


326 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 

1. Screw the tool of proper size into the bottom of the rack 
on the press. 

2. Connect the acetylene torch to the peening tool and light 
the flame. 

3. Allow the tool to become just hot enough to melt the end 
of a piece of solder. It should not get much hotter than this. 














SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS 


327 


sticking to the post is an indication that the tool is not yet broken 
in properly, or that the cover is not compressed sufficiently to 
release the tool. 

6. Examine the angle plate which supports the element fre¬ 
quently to make sure that it lines the posts up accurately with 
the tool. It is apt to be bent out of line, and when this occurs 
it must be brought back or the posts will be forced off center. 

7. If the pinion on the press handle comes loose it may be 
pinned through the shaft with a quarter inch taper pin. The 

small amount of tooth surface 
thus lost will not cause any 
trouble. 

Assuming that the press and 
tool are ready for operation, 
t h e following instructions 
cover the different steps in 
locking the cover to the posts: 

1. Assemble, or mesh the 
positive and negative groups 
together without any separa¬ 
tors and paint the posts with a 
thin coat of hot sealing com¬ 
pound for three-fourths of an 
inch above the shoulder. 

2. Have covers warm and 
flexible by immersing them in 
hot water, or steaming them. 

3. Place warm cover over 
the posts, Fig. 171, and slide 
the element over the support 
plate on the press so that one 

Fig. 170. Special Prest-O-Lite post is directly under the peen- 
Peening Press ing tool. 

4. Hold the element with the left hand, and bring the hot 
tool down slowly with the right, Fig. 172. Center the post with 
the tool as it comes down and force the latter down two-thirds 
of the way to the cover, then pause a moment to heat the post 










328 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


and continue the pressure until the edge of the tool is down to 
the cover boss. Raise the tool slightly and apply the pressure 
ag’ain unless vou are sure that the cover is already under slight 
compression. 

5. Now turn the element around and repeat the operation on 
the other post. 

A little practice will enable you to judge the heat and pressure 
very easily so as to get a perfect joint without breaking the 



Fig. 171. Replacing Prest-O-Lite Cover on Built Up Posts 


cover or melting the post. There are a few precautions which 
should be taken as they are essential to the success of this opera 
tion: 

1. Covers must be warmed until flexible. 

2. Peening tool must not be too hot or it will melt the post. 

3. Under side of the plate strap must lay flat on the element 
support. 

4. Element supporting angle plate must be at right angles 
to the rack and tool. If it has become bent out of line bend it 
back before attempting to lock another post. 











SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS 


329 


5. Be sure the post is lined up to the center of the tool be¬ 
fore forcing the latter down. 

G. Bend down and see that the cover has been forced to the 



Fig. 172. Peening Prest-O-Lite Post With Special Peening Press 

shoulder of the post, before you remove the element from the 
press. 

After the element and cover unit has been assembled the sepa¬ 
rators can be inserted and the complete assembly is ready to 
set in the jar, which has previously been sealed into the case. 
















330 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


THE PHILADELPHIA DIAMOND GRID BATTERY. 

Figs. 173 and 174 show the construction of the Philadelphia 
Diamond Grid Battery. Fig. 173 shows the diamond shaped grid 
from which the battery derives its name. It is claimed that this 
construction gives a very strong grid, holding the active materials 
firmly in place, and giving a large amount of contact surface 
between the grid and the active material. 


FeRNI/NAL 

Sealing Compoun^ 

Neqa 77 ve Stca p 


SEPARATOR 
hfoLOnowM 


F/ll-ER Cap Saske 


Fller Car 


Handel 


Cover Well. 


WeQA 77 VE PlA TE 



Cell. Connector 

FJouloeo Cell 

C o 

Ros/t/ i/e S tea p 

Wood Case 


Rubber War 

Fbs r/vE Plate 

Wood Separator 


Fig. 173. Cross Section of Philadelphia Diamond Grid Battery 


Figs. 173 and 174 show the details of the cover, terminal posts, 
vent plug, and so on. The post seal is made tight by pouring 
the compound into the cover well so that it flows in around all 
of the petticoats on the post. This construction increases the 
distance that the acid must travel along the post, in order to 
cause a leak, about two and one-half times the vertical distance 
on a smooth post. The hard rubber washer which fits around 
the post acts as a lock to prevent the post from turning. This 
applies especially to the two terminal posts to which the cables 
are attached. The washer is intended to prevent any strain in 






























































































































SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS 


331 


the cable from turning* the post and breaking the seal between 
the post and the compound. 

The Philadelphia vent plug is of the bayonet type, and is 
tightened by a quarter turn. The plug simply has a small vent 
hole in the top, and may either be taken out or left on while bat¬ 
tery is charging. 



Fig. 174. Philadelphia Diamond Grid Battery 


The Philadelphia separator is made of quarter sawed hard¬ 
wood. It has a hard resinous wood in which the hard and soft 
portions occur in regular alternating vertical layers. The soft 
layers are porous, and permit the diffusion of the acid from 
plate to plate. The hard layers give the separator stiffness and 
long life. The alternating hard and soft layers are at right 
angles to the surface of the separator, so that the electrolyte 
has a direct path between plates. 
















332 


THE AUTOMOBILE 


STORAGE BATTERY 


The methods of repairing Philadelphia Diamond Grid batteries 
are no different from those already given, on pages 246 to 307. 

When the elements have been assembled and returned to the 
jars, put the covers in place, and pour the compound around the 
edges of the cover, and in the post wells. The old compound must 
be removed from the petticoats on the posts before new com¬ 
pound is poured in. The compound must be warm and thin 
enough to flow around and fill up the petticoat spaces on the 
posts in order to get a good seal. When the post wells are full 
of compound, and while compound is still warm, put on the 
square sealing washers and press them down so that the holes 
in the washers fit closely around the octagonal part of the posts. 

The ampere hour capacities at the 5 ampere discharge rate 
(the usual lighting rate) are given in the table below for com¬ 
mon types of Philadelphia batteries. 


No. of Plates 

LL 

LM 

LS 

Per Cell 

LLR 

LMR 

LSR 

7 

38 

44 

48 

9 

54 

63 

69 

11 

70 

82 

90 

13 

87 

101 

111 

15 

104 

120 

132 

17 

120 

139 

153 

19 

136 

158 

174 


THE EVEREADY STORAGE BATTERY. 

It is claimed by the manufacturers that the sulphate which 
forms in the Eveready battery during discharge always remains 
, in the porous, convertible form, and never crystallizes and be¬ 
comes injurious, even though the battery is allowed to stand idle 
on open circuit for a considerable length of time. Due to this 
fact, the Eveready battery is called a “Non-Sulphating Bat¬ 
tery.” 

The manufacturers state that Eveready batteries which have 
stood idle or in a discharged condition for months do not suffer 
the damages which usually result from such treatment, namely: 


















SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS 


333 


buckling, and injurious s'ulphation. The plates do become sul- 
phated, but the sulphate remains in the porous, non-crystalline 
state in which it forms. Charging such a battery at its normal 
rate is all that is necessary to bring it back to its normal, healthy 
condition. Due to the excessive amount of sulphate which forms 
when the battery stands idle or discharged for a long time, it 
is necessary to give the battery 50 percent overcharge to remove 
all the sulphate and bring the battery back to a healthy working 
condition. The colors of the plates are good guides as to their 
condition at the end of the charge. The positives should be 
free from blotches of white sulphate, and should have a dark 
brown or chocolate color. The negatives should have a bright 
gray or slate color. 

CD 

Description of Parts. 

Eveready plates are of two general types. Plates of the R 
type are each provided with two feet on lower ends, the posi¬ 
tive set and the negative set resting on two separate pairs of 
bridges in the jars, thereby preventing the sediment which accu¬ 
mulates on top of bridges from short circuiting a cell. 

Plates of the M type, instead of having feet, are cut away 
where they pass over the bridges of the opposite group. See 
Fig. 175. This construction secures a greater capacity for a 
given space. This construction gives the same protection against 
short circuit from sediment as the foot construction does, since 
the same amount of sediment must accumulate with either type 
of plate to cause a short circuit. 

The separators used in Eveready batteries are made of cherry 
wood because it is a hard wood which will resist wear, is of 
uniform texture, even porosity, and has a long life in a given 
degree and condition of acid. 

Eveready cherry wood separators go to the repair man in a 
dry condition, as they do not require chemical treatment. Sepa¬ 
rators when received should be soaked in 1.250 specific gravity 
acid for forty-eight hours or longer in order to expand them to 
proper size and remove natural impurities from the wood. Af¬ 
ter being fully expanded they should be stored moist as pre¬ 
viously described. Stock separators may be kept indefinitely 











334 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


in this solution and can be used as required. Fig. 176 shows 
the top construction in the Eveready battery. 

Cell to cell connectors are heavily constructed and are sealed 
over solidly with a flexible sealing compound, Fig. 176. Two 



Fig. 175. Type “M” Eveready Grid 


types of cell to cell connectors are used—the crescent and the 
heavy or “three way” type. 

Repairing Eveready Batteries. 

To properly open and re-assemble an Eveready battery, proceed 
as follows: 
























SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS 


335 


1. Take a hot putty knife and cut the compound from the 
top of each of the cell to cell connectors until the entire top of 
the connector is exposed. 



Fiff. 17 G. Evereadv Battery. Top Connectors Are Covered by Compound 


2. Center punch tops of cell to cell connectors and terminal 
posts. 

3. Drill off cell to cell connectors. In drilling off crescent 
top connector use V 2 inch drill, and for heavy type connector 
use % inch drill. 

Drill deep enough, usually % to ] / 3 inch, until a seam between 
























336 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


connector and post is visible around lower edge of hole. Hav¬ 
ing drilled holes in both ends of connector, heat connector with 
soft flame until compound adhering to it becomes soft. Then 
take a % inch or % inch round iron or bolt, depending on con¬ 
nector to be removed, insert in one of the holes, and pry con¬ 
nector off with a side to side motion, being careful not to carry 
this motion so far as to jam connector into top of jar. 

4. After connectors have been removed, steam and open the 
battery, as described on pages 250 to 256. 

5. Examine plates, and handle them as described on pages 
257 to 284. Remember, however, that Eveready plates which 
show the presence of large amounts of sulphate, even to the extent 
of being entirely covered with white sulphate, should not be 
discarded. A battery with such plates should be charged at 
the normal rate, and given a 50 percent overcharge. 

6. Before re-assembling plate groups preparatory to assem¬ 
bling the battery, take negative and positive plate groups and 
build up the posts with the aid of a post building thimble to 
their original height. 

Assemble groups in usual manner, taking care that posts on 
pillar straps are in proper position relative to group in adjoin¬ 
ing cell, so that cell to cell connectors will span properly. 

Eveready batteries use a right and left hand pillar strap for 
both positives and negatives, making it necessary to use only one 
length of cell to cell connector. 

7. After inserting assembled plate groups into battery in 
their proper relation as to polarity, heat rubber covers to make 
them fairly pliable and fit them over pillar posts and into top of 
jar, pressing them down until they rest firmly on top of plate 
straps. See that covers are perfectly level and that vent tubes 
are perpendicular and all at same height above the plates. 

8. Heat compound just hot enough so that it will flow. Pour 
first layer about one quarter inch thick, being careful to cover 
entire jar cover. Take a soft flame and seal compound around 
edges of jar and onto posts. 

9. Now proceed to burn on top connectors. Cell to cell con¬ 
nectors need only be cleaned in hole left by post, and top of each 
end, 


SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS 


3137 


10. While burning in top connectors the first layer of com¬ 
pound will have cooled sufficiently to permit the second layer 
to be applied. This should be done immediately after burning 
on connectors and while they are still hot. Also heat the ter¬ 
minal posts, as compound will adhere to hot lead more readily 
than to cold. 

Start second layer of compound by pouring it over top con¬ 
nectors and terminal posts, first filling in with sufficient com¬ 
pound to bring level just above the tops of jars. Apply flame, 
sealing around edges of wood case, being particularly careful to 
properly seal terminal posts. Let this layer cool thoroughly be¬ 
fore applying third layer. 

11. The third layer of compound should be applied in the 
same way as second layer, pouring on connectors and terminal 
posts first, and filling in to the level of top of wood case. The 
spaces between bars of top connectors will fill and flow over 
properly if second layer has been allowed to cool and if top con¬ 
nectors have not been burned up too high. In sealing last layer 
with flame, care should be taken not to play flame on compound 
too long as this hardens and burns the compound. Burned com¬ 
pound has no flexibility and will crack readity in service, thus 
causing the battery to become a “stopper.” In pouring com¬ 
pound be sure to have battery setting level so that compound 
will come up even on all edges of case. Do not move battery 
after pouring last layer until thoroughly cool. 

Before installing battery on car be sure that no compound, 
etc., has been allowed to get onto taper of terminal post, as this 
will make a poor connection. If this has happened, clean with 
medium grade sandpaper. 






THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


Capacities of Eveready Batteries. 


TYPE No. 

VOLTS 

AMPERE HOURS CONTINUOUS 
DISCHARGE CAPACITY 

Momentary 

Starting 

Current 

Discharge 

At 3 Amp. 
Rate 

At 5 Amp. 
Rate 

At 10 Amp. 
Rate 

6S60R . 

6 

81 

70 

60 

200 

6S60H . 

6 

81 

70 

60 

200 

6S80R . 

6 

105 

95 

80 

250 

6S80H . 

6 

105 

95 

80 

250 

6HS80R . 

6 

105 

95 

80 

250 

6HS80RL . 

6 

105 

95 

80 

250 

6S80RL . 

6 

105 

95 

80 

250 

6GD80S . 

6 

120 

105 

90 

290 

6S100R . 

6 

120 

110 

100 

300 

6S100H . 

6 

126 

110 

100 

300 

6S120R . 

6 

160 

140 

120 

350 

6S120II . 

6 

160 

140 

120 

350 

6GD120S . 

6 

175 

150 

130 

380 

6GD120SE . 

6 

175 

150 

130 

380 

6S140R . 

6 

180 

160 

140 

400 

6S140H . 

6 

180 

160 

140 

400 

6S160R . 

6 

195 

185 

160 

450 

6S160H . 

6 

195 

185 

160 

450 

6S160HE . 

6 

195 

185 

160 

450 

12S35R . 

12 

42 

35 

25 

100 

I2S35RF . 

12 

42 

35 

25 

100 

12S35II . 

12 

42 

35 

25 

100 

12S35HF . 

12 

42 

35 

25 

100 

12S50R . 

12 

60 

50 

40 

150 

12S50RF . 

12 

60 

50 

40 

150 

12S50H . 

12 

60 

50 

40 

150 

12S50HF . 

12 

60 

50 

40 

150 

12S60R . 

12 

81 

70 

60 

200 

12S60RF . 

12 

81 

70 

60 

200 

12S60H . 

12 

81 

70 

60 

200 

12S60HP . 

12 

81 

70 

60 

200 

12S80R . 

12 

105 

95 

80 

250 

12S80RF . 

12 

105 

95 

80 

250 




































































SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS 


339 


Capacities of Eveready Batteries (Cont’d). 


TYPE No. 

voi/rs 

AMPERE HOURS CONTINUOUS 
DISCHARGE CAPACITY 

Momentary 

Starting 

Current 

Discharge 

At 3 Amp. 
Rate 

At 5 Amp. 
Rate 

At 10 Amp. 
Rate 

12S80H . 

12 

105 

95 

QO 

O 

250 

12S80HF . 

12 

105 

95 

80 

250 

12S100R . 

12 

126 

110 

100 

300 

12S100RF . 

12 

126 

110 

100 

300 

12S100H . 

12 

126 

110 

100 

300 

12S100HF. 

12 

126 

110 

100 

300 

16S35R . 

16 

42 

35 

25 

100 

16S35RF . 

16 

42 

35 

25 

100 

16S35H . 

16 

42 

35 

25 

100 

16S35HF. 

16 

42 

35 

25 

100 

16S50R . 

16 

60 

50 

40 

150 

16S50RF . 

16 

60 

50 

40 

150 

16S50H . 

16 

60 

50 

40 

150 

16S50HF. 

16 

60 

50 

» 40 

150 

16S60R . 

16 

81 

70 

60 

200 

16S60RF . 

16 

81 

70 

60 

200 

16S60H . 

16 

81 

70 

60 

200 

16S60HF . 

16 

81 

70 

60 

200 

18S35R . 

18 

42 

35 

25 

100 

18S35H . 

18 

42 

35 

25 

100 

18S50R . 

18 

60 

50 

40 

150 

18S50H . 

18 

60 

50 

40 

150 

18S60R . 

18 

81 

70 

60 

200 

18S60TI . 

18 

81 

70 

60 

200 

24S20R . 

24 

25 

20 

13 

75 

24S20H . 

24 

25 

20 

13 

75 

24S20RL . 

24 

25 

20 

13 

75 

24S20HL . 

24 

25 

20 

13 

75 

24S35R . 

24 

42 

35 

25 

100 

24S35H . 

24 

42 

35 

25 

100 

24S35HIJ . 

24 

42 

35 

25 

100 

24S20E .. 

24 

22 

18 

12 

75 








































































340 


the automobile storage battery 

VESTA BATTERIES. 



Vesta Isolators. The Vesta plate embodies in its design de¬ 
vices which are intended to hold the plates straight and thus 
eliminate the buckling which forms a large percentage of bat¬ 
tery trouble. Fig. 177 
shows clearly the con¬ 
struction of the plate. 

It will be noticed that 
the lower part of the 
plate has more vertical j 
ribs than the other 
parts. These ribs help 
to stiffen the plate. 
This is not the principal 
feature of the design, 
which consists of the 
“Isolators,” shown at 
the left. Each isolator 
consists of two notched 
strips of celluloid, with 
a plain celluloid strip 
between them. The 
notches are as wide as 
the plates are thick, the 
teeth bet w een the 
notches fitting into the 
spaces between plates, 
thus holding the plates 
at the correct distances 
Fig. 177. apart. The plain cellu¬ 

loid strip holds the 
notched strips in place. At each corner of the Vesta plate is a 
slot into which the isolator fits, as shown in Fig. 177. Since the 
teeth on the two notched pieces of each isolator hold the plates 
apart, they cannot “cut-out” or “short-out” by pinching through 
the wooden separators, or “impregnated mats” as they are 
called by the Vesta Company. 




























SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS 


341 


The celluloid of which the isolators are made are not attacked 
by the electrolyte at ordinary temperatures. At higher temper¬ 
atures, however, the electrolyte slowly dissolves the isolators. 






Hard Rub 


.Expansion Jomh j 


Plate 

Hard Wood 
Box 


Grids 


Gas Chamber 


One Piece 
. Cover 

Guaqe 
Indicates 
Acid Line 


Vent Hole 


Rubber Wooden „Posr 


Fig. 178. Cross Section of the “1919” Vesta Battery 


The condition of the isolator, therefore, may be used to deter¬ 
mine whether the temperature of the electrolyte has been al¬ 
lowed to rise above 100 : Fahrenheit. 

The Vesta separators, or “mats, 5 ' are treated by a special proc¬ 
ess designed to produce a very high grade separator. The Vesta 





































































































































342 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


Company considers its “mats” a very important feature of the 
battery. 

Except for the isolator, Vesta design has not embodied any 
features that require repair methods that are different from those 
described on pages 246 to 307. The “1919 Vesta, ” as it is called 
by the manufacturers, does, however, have several unique con¬ 
structions which require a special description. Chief of these 



Fig 179. Showing Complete “1919” Vesta Battery. Note Lead Collars and 

Large Vent Cap 

is the heavy, one piece cover with a soft rubber gasket seal, 
Fig. 178, which has been adopted. This cover and seal is de¬ 
signed to prevent acid leakage around the posts, and provides 
more acid space above the plates. The jars of the battery are 
assembled in the case without the use of sealing compound. 

A lead collar fits over each post to hold the cover tight against 
the soft r'ubber gasket underneath. This collar is not screwed 
or burned on the post, but is simply pressed down over the post, 
depending for its holding power upon the fact that two lead 
surfaces rubbing against each other tend to “freeze,” and unite 
so as to become a unit. The connector rests upon the upper face 








SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS 


343 


of the collar, and also helps to hold it down in its proper posi¬ 
tion. Fig. 179 shows the complete battery with the lead collar, 
and the large vent plug. 

A thin plate battery has been added to the Vesta types. The 
new plate is 3-32 inch thick, instead of the standard % inch. 
This permits the use of a greater number of plates in the same 
jar used in batteries having y 8 inch plates. The present type of 



Fig. 180. Expanding Lead Collar of “1919” Vesta Battery with Light Hammer 

batteries on which the new cover will be used are to be desig¬ 
nated by the letter C in front of the type of the plate ‘used. Thus 
a 6-U-13-Y battery will be called a 6-CU-13-Y battery. 

The thin plate battery, which also uses the single cover with 
the rubber gasket and lead collar seal will be known as the 
6-TU-13-Y or 12-TU9-Y as the case may be. 

In rebuilding Vesta batteries having the lead collars, the 
cover should be left in place when working on the plates, if possi¬ 
ble. If, however, it is necessary to separate groups, and the lead 
collars must be removed, this is done as shown in Fig. 180. A 









344 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 






Placing Lead Collar over Post of “1919’’ Vesta Battery 










SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS 


345 


few blows on the side of the collar with a light, two ounce ham¬ 
mer expands the lead collar several thousands of an inch so that 
the collar may be removed. 

In replacing the covers, the lead collar must be forced down 
over the post, and special pressure tongs are required for this 
purpose. Before driving on the old collar, the post should be 
expanded slightly by driving the point of a center-punch into 
the shoulder on the post. Instead of expanding the shoulder a 
new collar may be used. 



Fig. 183 Pressing Lead Collar over Post of ••1919” Vesta Battery 

0 

% 

Fig. 181 shows the soft rubber gasket being placed over the 
post, and shows the construction of the cover with its reset to 
fit the gasket. 

Fig. 182 shows the lead collar being placed over the post after 
the cover is in place. 

Fig. 183 shows the special long lipped tongs required to force 
the collar down on the post shoulder. One lip of the tongs 
has a hole into which the post fits. The necessary driving force 
may be obtained by applying pressure to the ends of the lips 
of the tongs with an ordinary vise. This forces the cover down 
on the rubber gasket to make the acid-tight seal. 












346 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


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CHAPTER 17. 


FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES. 

Although the large Central Station Companies are continually 
extending their power lines, and are enlarging the territory served 
by them, yet there are many places where such service is not 
available. To meet the demand for electrical power in these 
places, small but complete generating plants have been produced 
by a number of manufacturers. These plants consist of an elec¬ 
trical generator, an engine to drive the generator, and a storage 
battery to supply power when the generator is not running. The 
complete plants are called “House Lighting,” “Farm Lighting,” 
or “Isolated” plants. 

The batteries used in these plants differ considerably from the 
starting batteries used on automobiles. The starting battery is 
called upon to deliver very heavy currents for short intervals. 
On the car the battery is always being charged when the car is 
running at a moderate speed or over. The battery must fit in the 
limited space provided for it on the car, and must not lose any 
electrolyte as the car jolts along over the road. It is subjected 
to both high and low temperatures; and is generally on a car 
whose owner often does not know that his car has such a thing 
as a battery until his starting motor some day fails to turn over 
the engine. All starting batteries have wooden cases, hard rub¬ 
ber jars, and sealed on covers. The wooden case contains all the 
cells of the battery. Automobile batteries have, therefore, be¬ 
come highly standardized, and to the uninformed, one make looks 
just like any other. 

Farm lighting batteries, on the other hand, are not limited as 
to space they occupy, are not subjected to irregular charging 
and discharging, do not need leak proof covers, and are not 
called upon to delivery very heavy currents for short periods. 

347 





Q 

O 


48 


THE AUTOMOBILE 


STORAGE BATTERY 


These facts are taken advantage of by the manufacturers, who 
have designed their farm lighting batteries to give a much longer 
life than is possible in the automobile battery. As a result the 
farm lighting battery differs from the automobile battery in a 
number of respects. 



BOLT CONNECTOR 


POSITIVE TERMINAL 


SEMI-HARD 
RUBBER COVER 


BATTERY GAUGE 


PERFORATED HARD 
RUBBER SEPARATOR 


NEGATIVE TERMINAL 


LOCK NUT 


WOOD COVER SUPPORT 


WATER LINE 


PLATE STRAP 


WOOD SEPARATOR 


NEGATIVE PLATE 


PLATE 
SUPPORT LOCK 


GLASS JAR 


POSITIVE PLATE 


VENT CAP 


Fig. 184. Exide ‘Delco Light” Farm Lighting Cell with Semi-Hard 

Rubber Cover 


Jars. Both glass and rubber are used for farm lighting battery 
jars, and they may or may not have sealed-in covers. Fig. 184 
shows a glass jar of an Exide battery having a semi-hard rubber 
cover, and Fig. 185 shows a Prest-O-Lite glass jar cell having a 
cover made of lead and antimony. Unsealed glass jars, such as 
the Exide type shown in Fig. 186, generally have a plate of 
glass placed across the top to catch acid spray when the cell is 



























FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES 


349 



gassing. Each jar with its plates and electrolyte forms a com¬ 
plete and separate unit which may easily be disconnected from 
the other cells of the battery by removing the bolts which join 
them. In working on a farm lighting battery, the repairman, 

therefore, works with indi¬ 
vidual cells instead of the bat¬ 
tery as a whole, as is done with 
automobile batteries. 

Batteries with sealed jars are 
generally shipped completely 
assembled and filled with elec¬ 
trolyte, and need only a 
freshening charge before being 
put into service, just as auto¬ 
mobile batteries which are 
shipped “wet” are in a fully 
charged condition when they 
leave the factory and need only 
a charge before being installed 
on the car. 

Jars that are not sealed are 
set in separate glass trays filled 
with sand, or sometimes the 
entire battery is set in a shallow 
wooden box or tray filled with 
sand. This is necessary be¬ 
cause the absence of a sealed 
cover allows acid spray to ruu 
down the outside of the jar and 
this acid would, of course, at¬ 
tack the wooden shelf and 
make a dirty, sloppy battery. 
Batteries using jars without sealed covers cannot be shipped 
assembled and charged as those using sealed jars, and hence they 
require a considerable amount of work and a long initial charge to 
put them in a serviceable condition. 

Farm lighting battery jars are less liable to become cracked 
than those of automobile batteries because they are set in one 


jo- 


185. Prest-O-Lite Farm Lighting 
Cell With Lead-Antimony Cover 






















350 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 



place and remain there, and are not jolted about as automobile 
batteries are. Cracked jars in farm lighting batteries are more 
easily detected as the jar will be wet on the outside and the acid 
will wet the shelf or sand tray on which the jar rests. 

Batteries with sealed rubber jars are normally assembled four 
cells in a case or tray, with a nameplate on each tray which gives 
the type and size of cell. The cells are connected together with 

lead links which are bolted to 
the cell posts by means of lead 
covered bolt connectors. 

Plates. Since farm lighting 
batteries are not required to 
deliver very heavy currents at 
any time, the plates are made 
thicker than in starting bat¬ 
teries, this giving a stronger 
plate which has a longer life 
than the starting battery plate. 
All makes of starting bat¬ 
teries use the Faure. or 

/ 

pasted plate. This type of 
plate is also used in many 
farm lighting batteries, 
but the Plante plate (see 
* page 31) may also be 
used. The Exide “Chlor¬ 
ide Accumulator” cell, 
Fig. 186, uses a type of 
positive plate called the “Manchester” positive, as described on 
page 381. 

Separators. Grooved wooden separators are used iit some 
farm lighting batteries, while others use rubber separators, or 
both rubber and wooden separators. Some use wooden separators 
which are smooth on both sides, but have three dowels pinned to 
them, as the Exide separator shown in Fig. 187, to center them 
between the plates. 

Electrolyte. In a starting battery the specific gravity of the 
electrolyte of a fully charged cell is 1.280-1.300, no matter what 


Fig. 186. 


Exide Farm Lighting Cell with 
Open Glass Jar 





























FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES 351 

the make of the battery may be. In farm lighting batteries, the 
different types have different values of specific gravity when 
fully charged. The usual values are as follows: 

(a) Batteries with sealed glass jars.1.210 to 1.250 

(b) Batteries with open glass jars.1.200 to 1.250 

(c) Batteries with sealed rubber jars.1.260 to 1.280 

A brief discussion of specific gravity might be helpful at this 
point. In any lead acid battery current is produced by a chem¬ 
ical action between the 
active material in the 
plates and the water and 
sulphuric acid in the elec¬ 
trolyte. The amount of 
energy which can be de¬ 
livered by the battery 
depends on the amount of 
active material, sulphuric 
acid, and water which 
enter into the chemical 
actions of the cell. As 
these chemical actions 
take place, sulphuric acid 
is used up, and hence 
there must be enough acid 
contained in the electro¬ 
lyte to enter into the 
chemical actions. T li e 
amount of water and acid 
in the electrolyte may be varied, as long as there is enough of 
each present to combine with the active material of the plates 
so as to enable the cell to deliver its full capacity. Increasing 
the amount of acid will result in the plates and separators being 
attacked and injured by the acid. Increasing the amount of water 
dilutes the acid, giving a lower gravity, and preventing the acid 
from injuring plates and separators. This results in a longer life 
for tlie battery, and is a desirable condition. In starter batteries, 
there is not enough space in the jars for the increased amount of 


Hard Rubber Pin to 
support Separator 



A 


Fig. 187. Exide “Chloride Accumulator” 
Farm Lighting Battery Separator. 
Arrows Point to Dowels 























352 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


water. In farm lighting batteries, where the space occupied by 
the battery is not so important, the jars are made large enough to 
hold a greater amount of water, thus giving an electrolyte which 
has a lower specific gravity than in starting batteries. 

Take a fully charged cell of any starting battery. It contains 
a set of plates and the electrolyte which is composed of a certain 
necessary amount of acid and a certain amount of water. If we 
put the plates of this cell in a larger jar, add the same amount of 
acid as before, but add a greater amount of water than was 
contained in the smaller jar, we will still have a fully charged 
cell of the same capacity as before, but the specific gravity of 
the electrolyte will be lower. 

Charging Equipment. Automobile batteries are being charged 
whenever the car is running at more than about 10 miles per 
hour, regardless of what their condition may be. On some cars 
the current sent through the battery by the generator varies with 
the state of charge of the battery, being very small when the 
battery is fully charged, and comparatively heavy when the 
battery is in a discharged condition. On most cars, however, the 
generator charges the battery at the same rate at all times, 
whether the battery be in a charged or discharged condition. 
This results in some batteries being heavily overcharged, and 
others undercharged, due to the different driving conditions. 
On long tours, or when m'uch day driving is done with but little 
use of the starting motor, the battery will be overcharged. If 
the starting motor is used frequently, or much night driving is 
clone, and the car stands at the curb with lights burning for 
hours at a time, the battery will most likely remain in an under¬ 
charged condition. 

In farm lighting outfits, the charging is under the control of 
the operator, and the battery is charged when a charge is neces¬ 
sary. There is, therefore, very much less danger of starving or 
overcharging the battery. The operator must, however, watch 
his battery carefully, and charge it as often as may be necessary, 
and not allow it to go without its regular charge. 

The generator of a farm lighting outfit, generally about a 40 
volt machine, is usually driven by a gasoline engine furnished 
with the outfit. The engine may be connected to the generator 


FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES 


353 


5y a belt, or its shaft may be connected directly to the genera¬ 
tor shaft. A switchboard carrying the necessary instruments 
and switches also goes with the outfit. The charging cur¬ 
rent is under the control of the operator, and may be adjusted 
as needed. The charging of farm lighting batteries is, therefore, 
very much like the charging of automobile batteries on the charg¬ 
ing bench except that the batteries are at all times connected to 
switches by means of which they may be put on the charging 
line. 

Some plants are so arranged that the battery and generator 
do not provide current for the lights at the same time, lights 
being out while the battery is charging. In others the generator 
and battery, in emergency, may both provide current. In others 
the lights may burn while the battery is being charged; in this 
case the battery is sometimes provided with counter-electromotive 
force cells which permit high enough voltage across the battery 
to charge it and yet limit the voltage across the lamps to prevent 
burning them out or shortening their life. In some cases the bat¬ 
tery is divided into two sets which are charged in parallel and 
discharged in series. 

Relation of the Automobile Storage Battery Man to the Farm 
Lighting Plant. Owners and prospective owners of farm light¬ 
ing plants generally know but little about the care or repaid of 
electrical apparatus, especially batteries, which are not as easily 
understood as lamps, motors or generators. Prospective owners 
may quite likely call upon the automobile battery repair man 
for advice as to the installation, operation, maintenance, and re¬ 
pair of his battery and the automobile battery repairman should 
have little trouble in learning how to take care of farm lighting 
batteries. The details in which these batteries differ from start¬ 
ing batteries should be studied and mastered, and a new source 
of business will be opened. 

Farm lighting plants in the vicinity should be studied and ob¬ 
served while they are in good working order, the details of con¬ 
struction and operation studied, the layout of the various circuits 
to lamps, motors, heaters, etc., examined so as to become fa¬ 
miliar with the plants. Then when anything goes wrong with 







354 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


the battery, or even the other parts of the plant, there will be no 
difficulty in putting things back in running order. 


Selection of Plant. 

“Farm Lighting Plant” is the name applied to the small elec¬ 
tric plant to be used where a central station supply is not avail¬ 
able. Such a plant, of course, may be used for driving motors 
and heating devices, as well as operating electric lights, and the 
plant is really a “Farm Lighting and Power Plant.” 

Make. There are several very good lighting plants on the 
market and the selection of the make of the plant must be left 
to the discretion of the owner, or whomever the owner may ask 
for advice. The selection will depend on cost, whether the plant 
will fill the particular requirements, what makes can be obtained 
nearby, on the delivery that can be made, and the service policy 
of the manufacturer. 

Type. Plants are made which come complete with battery, 
generator engine, and switchboard mounted on one base. All 
such a plant requires is a suitable floor space for its installation. 
Other plants have all parts separate, and require more work to 
install. With some plants, the generator and engine may be 
mounted as a unit on one base, with battery and switchboard 
separate. 

The type of jar used in the battery may influence the choice. 
Jars are made of glass or rubber. The glass jars have sealed 
covers, or have no covers. The rubber jars generally have a 
sealed cover. The glass jar has the advantage that the interior 
may be seen at all times, and the height of the electrolyte and 
sediment may be seen and the condition of the plates, etc., de¬ 
termined by a simple inspection. This is an important feature 
and one that will be appreciated by the one who takes care of 
the battery. Jars with sealed covers, or covers which although 
not sealed, close up the top of the jar completely have the ad¬ 
vantage of keeping in acid spray, and keeping out dirt and im¬ 
purities. Open jars are generally set in trays of sand to catch 
electrolyte which runs down the outside walls of the jars. The 
open jars have the advantage that the plates are very easily re- 



FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES 


355 


moved, but have the disadvantage that acid spray is not kept 
in effectually, although a plate of glass is generally laid over 
part of the top of the jar, and that dirt and dust may fall into 
the jar. 

Size. The capacity of storage battery cells is rated in ampere 
hours, while power consumed by lights, motors, etc., is measured 
in watt hours, or kilo-watt hours. However, the ampere hour 
capacity of a battery can be changed to watt hours since watt 
hours is equal to 

Watt hours = volts X amperes X hours. 

If we have a 16 cell battery each cell of which is an 80 ampere 
hour cell, the ampere hour capacity of the entire battery will be 
80, the same as that of one of its cells, since the cells are all in 
series and the same current passes through all cells. The watt 
hour capacity of the battery will be 32 times 80, or 2560. The am¬ 
pere hour capacity is computed for the 8 hour rate, that is, the 
current is drawn from the battery continuously for 8 hours, and at 
the end of that time the battery is discharged. If the current is 
not drawn from the battery continuously for 8 hours, but is used 
for shorter intervals intermittently, the ampere hour capacity 
of the battery will be somewhat greater. It seldom occurs that 
in any installation the battery is used continuously for eight 
hours at a rate which will discharge it in that time, and hence 
a greater capacity is obtained from the battery. Some manufac¬ 
turers do not rate their batteries at the 8 hour continuous dis¬ 
charge rate but use the intermittent rate, thus rating a battery 
30 to 40 percent higher. A battery of 16 cells rated at 80 am¬ 
pere hours at the 8 hour rate would be rated at 112 ampere hours, 
or 3584 watt hours. 

In determining the size of the battery required, estimate as 
nearly as possible how many lamps, motors, and heaters, etc., will 
be used. Compute the watts (volts X amperes), required by each. 
The sum of the watts required by all the lamps, motors, heaters, 
etc., may be allowed to exceed the watt hours of the battery 
because not all the electric appliances will be in operation at the 
same time. Estimate how long each appliance will be used each 
day, and thus obtain the total watt hours used per day. The 
total watt hours required in one week should not be equal to 





356 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


more than twice the watt hour capacity of the battery at the 
eight hour rate. This means that the battery should not require 
a charge oftener than two times a week. 

The capacity of a battery is often measured in the number of 
lamps it will burn brightly for eight hours. The watts consumed 
by motors, heaters, etc., may be expressed in a certain number 
of lamps. The following table will be of assistance in determin¬ 
ing the size of the battery required: 


Type of Appliance 
16 candle power, Mazda lamp 
12 candle power, Mazda lamp 

Electric Fan, small size. 

Small Sewing machine motor. 

Vacuum cleaner. 

Washing machine . 

Churn, 1/6 h. p. 

Cream Separator, 1/6 h. p... 

Water pump, 1/6 h. p. 

Electric water heater, small. . 

Electric toaster. 

Electric stove, small. 

Electric iron .. 

Pump, V> h. p. 


Equivalent 
Watts Number of 
Consumed 20 Watt Lamps 


20 

15 

1 

75 

4 

100 

5 

160 

8 

200 

10 

200 

10 

200 

10 

200 

10 

350 

18 

525 

26 

600 

30 

600 

30 

600 

30 


Location of Plant. 


The various appliances should be placed as near to each other 
as possible. The lights, of course, must be placed so as to 
illuminate the different rooms, barns, etc., but the power devices 
should be placed as close as possible to each other and to the 
plant. The purpose of this is to use as little wire as possible 
between the plant and the various appliances so as to prevent 
excessive voltage drop in the lines. 

Wiring. 

The wires leading to the various appliances should be large 
enough so that not more than one or two volts are lost in the 




















FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES 


357 


wires. To obtain the resistance of the wire leading to any 
ance, use the following equation: 


appli- 


Resistance= Ypits lost in line (from 1 to 2) 

Current flowing in line 

Knowing the resistance of the wire, and the total length of the 
two wires leading from the plant to the appliance, the size of the 
wire may be obtained from a wiring table. 

Rubber insulated copper wire covered with a double braid 
should preferably be used, and the duplex wire is often more 
convenient than the single wire, especially in running from one 
building to another. Wiring on the inside of buildings should 
be done neatly, running the wires on porcelain insulators, and 
as directly to the appliance as possible. The standard rules for 
interior wiring as to fuses, soldering joints, etc., should be fol¬ 
lowed. 

Installation. 

The room in which the plant is installed should be clean, dry, 
and well ventilated. It should be one which is not very cold 
in winter, as a cold battery is very sluggish and seems to lack 
capacity. If possible, have the plant in a separate room in order 
to keep out dirt and dust. If no separate room is available, it 
is a good plan to build one in a corner of a large room. Keep the 
room clean and free of miscellaneous tools and rubbish. 

If the entire plant comes complete on one base, all that is 
necessary is to bolt the base securely to the floor, which should be 
as nearly level as possible. If the battery is to be installed 
separately, build a rack having shelves two inches thick, and up¬ 
rights made of four by four timbers. Not more than two shelves, 
30 inches apart, should be used, in order that the upper shelf 
may not be so high as to make it inconvenient to inspect the cells 
on it. Give the rack several coats of hot asphaltum paint to 
make it acid proof. 

All metal parts such as pipes, bolt heads, etc., which cannot be 
removed from the room should be given at least three coats of 
asphaltum paint. Care must be taken not to have an open flame 
of any kind in the battery room, as the hydrogen and oxygen 









358 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


gases, given off as a battery charges may explode and cause in¬ 
jury to the person and possible severe damage to the battery. 

Batteries with cells having sealed covers are generally filled 
with electrolyte and fully charged before they leave the factory. 
Unless a jar is cracked or the electrolyte spilled, these batteries 
are ready for service when they arrive, but this should be 
checked up by measuring the specific gravity of the electrolyte 
in every cell. If the battery is found to be less than half charged, 
give the complete battery a charge at a rate that will not cause 
gassing, and will not cause excessive heating of electrolyte. The 
charge should be given when the plant has been completely as¬ 
sembled. 

Batteries having open jars must be shipped without any elec¬ 
trolyte in the battery, and hence require a careful assembly, and 
a long initial charge to make them ready for service. Details 
for doing this are always furnished with the plant, and need not 
be given here. 


Care of the Plant in Operation. 

The battery repairman should be able not only to repair the 
batteries, but should also be able to keep the entire plant in 
working order, and suggestions will be given as to what must 
be done, although no detailed instructions for work on the gen¬ 
erator, engine, and switchboard will be given as this is beyond 
the scope of this book. 

Battery Room. The essential things about the battery room are 
that it must be clean, dry, and well ventilated. This means, of 
course, that the battery and battery rack must also be kept clean 
and dry. A good time to clean up is when the battery is being 
charged. Clean out the room first, sweeping out dirt and rub¬ 
bish, dusting the walls, and so on. Both high and low tem¬ 
peratures should be avoided. If the battery room is kept too 
hot, the battery will become heated and the hot electrolyte will 
attack the plates and separators. Low temperatures do no actual 
harm to a charged battery except to make the battery sluggish, 
and seem to lack capacity. A discharged battery will, however, 
freeze above 0° Fahrenheit. The battery will give the 


FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES 


359 


best service if the battery room temperature is kept between 
60° and 80° Fahrenheit. 

Do not bring any open flame such as a lantern, candle or match 
near a battery and do not go near the battery with a lighted cigar, 
cigarette or pipe, especially while the battery is charging. Hy¬ 
drogen and oxygen gases form a highly explosive mixture. An 
explosion will not only injure the battery, but will probably 
disfigure the one carrying the light, or even destroy his eyes. 

It is a good plan to open windows or doors of the battery 
room occasionally so as to flush the room thoroughly with fresh 
air. 

Engine. The gasoline engine which drives the generator re¬ 
quires attention occasionally. Wipe off all dirt, oil or grease. 
Keep the engine well lubricated with a good oil. If grease clips 
are used, give these several turns whenever the engine is run to 
charge the battery. Use clean gasoline, straining it, if necessary, 
through a clean cloth or chamois, if there is any dirt in it. The 
cooling water should also be clean, and in winter a non-freezing 
preparation should be added to it. Do not change the carburetor 
setting whenever the engine does not act properly. First look 
over the ignition system and spark plug for trouble, and also 
make sure that the carburetor is receiving gasoline. If possible, 
overhaul the engine once a year to clean out the carbon, tighten 
bearings and flywheel, remove leaky gaskets, and so on. 

Generator. Keep the outside of the generator clean by wiping 
it occasionally with an oiled rag. See that there is enough 
lubricating oil in the bearings, but that there is not too much oil, 
especially in the bearing at the commutator end of the generator. 
Keep the commutator clean. If it is dirty, wipe it with a rag 
moistened slightly with kerosene. The brushes should be lifted 
from the commutator while this is being done. Finish with a dry 
cloth. If the commutator is rough it may be made smooth with 
fine sandpaper held against it while the generator is running, 
and the brushes are lifted. 

The surfaces of the brushes that bear on the commutator 
should be inspected to see that they are clean, and that the en¬ 
tire surfaces make contact with the commutator. The parts that 
are making contact will look smooth and polished, while other 








360 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 

parts will have a dull, rough appearance. If the brush contact 
surfaces are dirty or all parts do not to'uch the commutator, draw 
a piece of tine sandpaper back and forth under the brushes, one 
at a time, with the sanded side of the paper against the brush. 
This will clean the brushes and shape the contact surfaces to fit 
the curve of the commutator. Brushes should be discarded when 
they become so short that they do not make good contact with the 
commutator. See that the brush holders and brush wires are all 
tight and clean. Watch for loose connections of wires, as these 
will cause voltage loss when the generator is charging the bat¬ 
tery. Watch for “high mica,” which means a condition in which 
the insulation between the segments projects above the surface 
of the commutator, due to the commutator wearing down faster 
than the insulation. If this condition arises, the mica should be 
cut down until it is slightly below the surface of the commu¬ 
tator. An old hack saw blade makes a good tool for this pur¬ 
pose. A commutator may have grooves cut in by the brushes. 
These grooves do no harm as long as the brushes have become 
worn to the exact shape of the grooves. When the brushes are 
“dressed” with sandpaper, however, they will not fit the grooves, 
and the commutator should be turned down in a lathe until the 
grooves are removed. 

A steady low hum will be heard when the generator is in op¬ 
eration. Loud or unusual noises should be investigated, how¬ 
ever, as a bearing may need oil, the armature may be rubbing 
on the field pole faces, and so on. 

Watch for overheating of the generator. If you can hold your 
hand on the various parts of the generator, the temperature is 
safe. If the temperature is so high that parts may be barely 
touched with the hand, or if an odor of burned rubber is no¬ 
ticeable, the generator is being overheated, and the current from 
the generator should be reduced. 

Switchboard. Clean off dirt and grease occasionally. Keep 
switch contacts clean and smooth. If a “cutout” is on the board, 
keep its contacts smooth and clean. If the knife switch blades are 
hard to move, look for cutting at the pivots. Something may be 
cutting into the blades. If this is found to be the case, use a file 





FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES 


361 


to remove all roughness from the parts of the pivot. See that no 
switches are bent or burned. 

Keep the back of the board clean and dry as well as the front. 
See that all connections are tight. Keep all wires, rheostats, etc., 
perfectly clean. A coat of shellac on the wires, rheostats, switch 
studs, etc., will be helpful in keeping these parts clean. 

Care of Battery. 

Cleanliness. Keep the battery and battery rack clean. After 
a charge is completed, wipe off any electrolyte that may be run¬ 
ning down the outsides of the jars. Wipe all electrolyte and 
other moisture from the battery rack. Occasionally go over the 
rack with a rag w r et with ammonia or washing soda solution. 
Then finish with a dry cloth. Paint the rack with hot asphaltum 
paint once a year, or oftener if the paint is rubbed or scratched. 

If sand trays are used, renew the sand whenever it becomes 
very wet with electrolyte. Keep the terminals and connectors 
clean. Near the end of a charge, feel each joint between cells 
for a poor connection. Watch also for corrosion on the connec¬ 
tions. Corrosion is caused by the electrolyte attacking any ex¬ 
posed metals other than lead, near the battery, resulting in a 
grayish deposit on the connectors or bolts at the joints. Such 
joints will become hotter than other joints, and may thus be 
located by feeling the joints after the battery has been charged 
for some time. Corrosion may be removed by washing the part 
in a solution of washing soda. 

Be very careful to keep out of the cells anything that does not 
belong there. Impurities injure a cell and may even ruin it. Do 
not let anything, especially metals, fall into a cell. If this is 
done accidentally, pour out the electrolyte immediately, put in 
new separators, w r ash the plates in water, fill with electrolyte 
having a gravity about 30 points higher than that which was 
poured out, and charge. The cell may be connected in its 
proper place and the entire battery charged. Yent plugs should 
be kept in place at all times, except when water is added to the 
electrolyte. 

Keep the Electrolyte Above the Tops of the Plates. If the 

battery has glass jars, the height of the electrolyte can be seen 


362 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


easily. If the battery lias sealed rubber jars, the height of the 
electrolyte may be determined with a glass tube, as described on 
page 80. In most batteries the electrolyte should stand from 
three-fourths of an inch to an inch above the plates. Some jars 
have a line or mark showing the proper height of the electrolyte. 
A good time to inspect the height of the electrolyte is just before 
putting the battery on charge. If the electrolyte is low, distilled 
water should be added to bring it up to the proper level. Water 
should never be added at any other time, as the charging cur¬ 
rent is required to mix the water thoroughly with the electro¬ 
lyte. 

Determining the Condition of the Cells. The specific gravity of 

the electrolyte is the best indicator of the condition of the bat¬ 
tery as to charge, just as is the case in automobile batteries, and 
hence should be watched closely. It is not convenient or neces¬ 
sary to take gravity readings on every cell in the battery on 
every charge or discharge. Therefore, one cell called the “Pilot” 
cell should be selected near the center of the battery and its 
specific gravity readings taken to indicate the state of charge 
or discharge of the entire battery. Exide batteries each have one 
special jar for a pilot cell. This jar has a pocket in one of its 
walls in which a bead or ball operates as a hydrometer. See 
Fig. 184. 

Hydrometer readings should be taken frequently, and a record 
of consecutive readings kept. When the gravity drops to the 
lowest value allowable (1.150 to 1.180, depending on the make of 
battery) the battery should be charged. 

Once every month voltage and gravity readings of every cell 
in the battery should be taken and recorded for future guidance. 
These readings should be taken after the monthly “overcharge” 
or “equalizing charge” which is explained later. If the monthly 
readings of any cell are always lower than that of other cells, it 
needs attention. The low readings may be due to electrotyte 
having been spilled and replaced with water, but in a farm light¬ 
ing battery this is not very likely to happen. More probably 
the cell has too much sediment, or bad separators, and needs 
cleaning. See special instructions on Exide and Prest-O-Lite bat¬ 
teries which are given later. 


FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES 


36B 


There are several precautions that must be observed in taking 
gravity readings in order to obtain dependable results. Do not 
take gravity readings if: 

(a) The cell is gassing violently. 

(b) The hydrometer float does not ride freely. If a syringe 
hydrometer is used, the float must not be touching the walls of 
the tube, and the tube must not be so full that the top of the 
float projects into the rubber bulb at the upper end of the tube. 

(c) Water has been added less than four hours before taking 
the readings. A good time to take readings is just before water 
is added. 


The hydrometer which is used must have the specific gravity 
readings marked on it in figures, such as 1.180, 1.200, 1.220 and 
so on. Automobile battery hydrometers which are marked 
“Full,” “Empty,” “Charged,” “Discharged,” must not be 
used, since the specific gravities corresponding to these words 
are not the same in farm lighting batteries as in automobile bat¬ 
teries and the readings would be incorrect and misleading. 

Temperature corrections should be made in taking hydrometer 
readings, as described on page 90. For Prest-O-Lite batteries, 
80° is the standard temperature, and gravity readings on these 
batteries should be corrected to 80° as described on page 372. 

Gravity readings should, of course, be taken during charge 
as well as during discharge. The readings taken during charge 
are described in the following sections on charging. 


Charging. 


Two kinds of charges should be given the battery, the “Reg¬ 
ular” charge, and the “Overcharge” or “Equalizing Charge.” 
These will be spoken of as the “Regular” charge and the “Over¬ 
charge.” The Regular charge must be given whenever it is nec¬ 
essary in order to enable the battery to meet the lighting or 
other load demands made upon it. The overcharge, which is 
merely a continuation of a regular charge, should be given once 
every month. The overcharge is given to keep the battery in 
good condition, and to prevent the development of inequalities in 
condition of cells. 

When to Charge. Experience will soon show how often you 


364 


THE AUTOMOBILE 


STORAGE BATTERY 


must give a regular charge in order to keep the lights from be¬ 
coming dim. When the voltage reading, taken while all the 
lamps are on has dropped to 1.8 volts per cell a Regular charge 
is necessary. When the specific gravity of the pilot cell indicates 
that the battery is discharged, a Regular charge is necessary. It 
is better to use the specific gravity readings as a guide, as de¬ 
scribed later. 

A good plan, and the best one, is to give a battery a Regular 
charge once every week, whether the battery becomes discharged 
in one week’s time or not. A regular charge may occasionally be 
required oftener than once a week. Every fourth week give the 
Overcharge instead of the Regular charge. 

If a battery is to be out of service, arrangements should be 
made to add the necessary water and give an overcharge every 
month, the Regular charges not being necessary when the bat¬ 
tery stands absolutely idle. 

Overcharge. Charge the battery at a rate which will not 
allow the temperature of the electrolyte to rise above 100° Fah¬ 
renheit, and which will not cause gassing while the specific 
gravity is still considerably below its maximum value. One am¬ 
pere per plate in each cell is a safe value of current to use. A 
battery having eleven plates in each cell should, for example, be 
charged at about 11 to 12 amperes. 

Watch the temperature of the pilot cell carefully. This cell 
should have an accurate Fahrenheit thermometer suspended 
above it so that the bulb is immersed in the electrolyte. If this 
thermometer should show a temperature of 100°, stop the charge 
immediately, and do not start it again until the temperature has 
dropped to at least 90°. Feel the other cells with your hand oc¬ 
casionally, and if any cell is so hot that you cannot hold your 
hand on it measure its temperature with the thermometer to see 
whether it is near 100°. A good plan is to measure the tem¬ 
perature of the electrolyte in every cell during the charge. If 
any cell shows a higher temperature than that of the pilot cell, 
place the thermometer in the cell giving the higher reading, and 
be guided by the temperature of that cell. You will then know 
that the thermometer indicates the highest temperature in the 
entire battery, and that no other cell is dangerously hot when the 











FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES 


365 


thermometer does not read 100° or over. Another point in the 
selection of a pilot cell is to determine if any particular cell shows 
a gravity which is slightly less than that of the other cells. If 
any such cell is found, use that cell as the pilot cell in taking 
gravity readings while the battery is on discharge and also on 
charge. No cell will then be discharged too far. 

When all cells are gassing freely, continue the charge at the 
same current until there is no rise in the specific gravity of the 
pilot cell for one hour, and all cells are gassing freely through¬ 
out the hour. Then stop the charge. 

Care should be taken that the gassing which takes place near 
the end of the charge is not too violent. If the gassing is such 
that it gives the electrolyte a milky appearance, reduce the 
charging current until this milky appearance is not produced 
by the gas bubbles. 

After the overcharge is completed, take gravity readings of 
all the cells. If any cell shows 10 or more points lower gravity 
than it should, remove some of the electrolyte and add stronger 
electrolyte to bring the gravity up to the correct value. Similar¬ 
ly, if the gravity of any cell is ten or more points too high, draw 
off electrolyte and add distilled water as required. Do not add 
much water or electrolyte at one time, but use only a small 
quantity and wait four hours before taking another gravity read¬ 
ing, in order that the gravity may become uniform throughout 
the cell. If the gravity is then not correct, adjust further. 

Care should be taken in adjusting the gravity of the electrolyte, 
however. A variation of about eight to ten points either above 
or below the fully charged gravity after correction for tem¬ 
perature does not mean that a cell requires any attention. If, 
however, one cell continually reads more than 10 points lower 
than the others, the whole battery may be given an overcharge 
until the gravity of the low cell comes up. If the cell then does 
does not show any tendency to charge up properly, disconnect it 
from the battery while the battery is discharging and then con¬ 
nect it in again on the next charge. If this fails to bring the 
gravity of the cell up to normal, the cells should be examined 
for short circuits. Short circuits may be caused by broken sepa¬ 
rators permitting the active material to bridge between the 


366 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


plates; the sediment in the bottoms of the jars may have reached 
the plates, or conducting substances may have fallen in the cells. 
Broken separators should be replaced without loss of time, and 
the cells cleaned if the sediment in the jars is high. 

Regular Charge. A Regular Charge is made exactly like an 
Overcharge, except that a Regular Charge is stopped when cells 
are gassing freely, when the voltage per cell is about 2.6, and 
when the specific gravity of the pilot cell rises to within 5 points 
of what it was on the previous Overcharge. That is, if the 
gravity reading on the Overcharge rose to 1.210, the Regular 
Charge should be stopped when the gravity reaches 1.205. 

Partial or Rapid Charge. If there is not enough time to give 
the batter}^ a full Regular Charge, double the normal charging 
rate and charge until all the cells are gassing, and then reduce 
to the normal rate. Any current which does not cause excessive 
temperature or premature gassing is permissible, as previously 
mentioned. If a complete charge cannot be given, charge the 
battery as long as the available time allows, and complete the 
charge at the earliest possible opportunity. 

Discharge. 


Do not allow the battery to discharge until the lights burn 
dim, or the voltage drops below 1.8 per cell. The specific 
gravity is a better guide than the lamps or voltage. The 
gravity falls as the battery discharges, and is therefore a good 
indicator of the condition of the battery. Voltage readings are 
good guides, but they must be taken while the battery is dis¬ 
charging at its normal rate. If the load on the battery is heavy, 
the voltage per cell might fall below 1.8 before the battery was 
discharged. Lamps will be dim if the load on the battery is 
heavy, especially if they are located far away from the battery. 
The specific gravity readings are therefore the best means of 
indicating when a battery is discharged. 

Overd^scharge. Be very careful not to discharge the battery 
beyond the safe limits. Batteries discharging at low rates are 
liable to be overdischarged before the voltage gives any indica¬ 
tion of the discharged condition. This is another reason why 
hydrometer readings should be used as a guide. 



FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES 


367 


A battery must be charged as soon as it becomes discharged. 
It is, in fact, a good plan, and one which will lengthen the life 
of the battery, to charge a battery when it is only about three- 
fourtlis discharged, as indicated by the hydrometer. Suppose, 
for instance, that the specific gravity of the fully charged bat¬ 
tery is 1.250, and the specific gravity when the battery is dis¬ 
charged is 1.180. This battery has a range of 1.250 minus 1.180, 
or 70 points between charge and discharge. This battery will 
give a longer life if its discharge is stopped and the battery is 
put on charge when the gravity falls to 1.200, a drop of 50 points 
instead of the allowable 70. 

Allowing discharged battery to stand without charge. A bat¬ 
tery should never be allowed to stand more than one day in a 
discharged condition. The battery will continue to discharge 
although no current is drawn from it, just as an automobile bat¬ 
tery will. See page 121. The battery plates and separators will 
gradually become badly sulphated and it will be a difficult mat¬ 
ter to charge the battery up to full capacity. 

Battery Troubles. 

Farm lighting batteries are subject to the same general troubles 
that automobile batteries are, although they are not as Rkely to 
occur because the operating conditions are not as severe as is 
file case on the automobile. Being in plain view at all times, 
and not being charged and discharged irregularly, the farm 
lighting battery is not likely to give as much trouble as an 
automobile battery. Neglect, such as failure to keep the electro¬ 
lyte up to the proper height, failure to charge as soon as the 
battery becomes discharged, overdiscliarging, allowing battery 
to become too hot or too cold, allowing impurities to get into 
the cells, will lead to the same troubles that the same treatment 
will cause in an automobile battery, and the descriptions of, and 
instructions for troubles in automobile batteries will apply in 
general to farm lighting batteries also. 

When a battery has been giving trouble, and you are called 
upon fo diagnose and remedy that trouble, you should: 



368 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


1. Get all the details as to the length of time the battery has 
been in service. 

2. Find out what regular attention has been paid to its up¬ 
keep ; whether it has been charged regularly and given an 
overcharge once a month; whether distilled water has been used 
in replacing evaporation of water from the electrolyte; whether 
impurities such as small nails, pieces of wire, etc., have ever 
fallen into any cell; whether battery has ever been allowed to 
stand in a discharged condition for one day or more; whether 
temperature has been allowed to rise above 100° at any time; 
whether electrolyte has ever been frozen due to battery standing 
discharged in very cold weather. 

3. Talk to the owner long enough to judge with what intelli¬ 
gence he has taken care of the battery. Doing this may save you 
both time and subsequent embarrassment from a wrong diagnosis 
resulting from incomplete data. 

4. After getting all the details that the owner can supply, 
you will probably know just about what the trouble is. Look 
over the cells carefully to determine their condition. If the 
jars are made of glass note the following: 

(a) Height of sediment in each jar. 

(b) Color of electrolyte. This should be clear and colorless. 
A decided color of any kind usually means that dirty or impure 
water has been added, or impurities have fallen into the cell. 
For discussion of impurities see page 102. 

(c) Condition of plates. The same troubles should be looked 
for as in automobile batteries. See pages 260 to 269. An exami¬ 
nation of the outside negatives is usually sufficient. The condition 
of the positives may also be determined if a flash light or other 
strong light is directed on the edges of the plates. Look for 
growths or “treeing” between plates. 

(d) Condition of separators. See page 269. 

If cells have sealed rubber jars, proceed as follows: 

(a) Measure height of electrolyte above plates with glass 
tube, as in Fig. 35. If in any cell electrolyte is below tops of 
plates that cell is very likely the defective one, and should be 
filled with distilled water. If a considerable amount of water 


FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES 


369 


is required to till the jar it is best to open the cell, as the plates 
ha\e probably become damaged. If the jar is wet or the rack is 
acid eaten under the jar, the jar is cracked and must be replaced. 

If you have not found the trouble, make the following' tests, 
no matter whether glass or rubber jars are used: 

(a) Measure specific gravity of each cell. If any cell is badly 
discharged ii is probably short-circuited, or contains impurities 
and had better be opened for inspection. 

(b) Turn on all the lamps and measure the voltage of each 
cell. If any cell shows a voltage much less than 1.8 it is short- 
circuited or contains impurities, and should be opened for in¬ 
spection. 

(c) Examine the connections between cells for looseness or 
corrosion; and examine the connections between the battery and 
the generator, going over cables, switches, rheostats, etc. Make 
sure that you have a complete and closed charging circuit 
between the generator and the battery. 

(d) If cutout is used on the switchboard, see that its contact 
points are smooth and clean, and that they work freely. 

(e) Run the generator to see if it builds up a voltage which 
is sufficient to charge the battery,—about 42 volts for a 16 cell 
battery. If the generator is not working properly, examine it 
according to directions on page 359. Check up the field circuit 
of the generator to be sure that it is closed. A circuit-tester made 
of a buzzer and several dry cells, or a low voltage lamp and dry 
cells, or a hand magneto is convenient for use in testing circuits. 
Test armature windings and field coils for grounds. 

By the foregoing methods you should be able to determine 
what is to be done. The folowing rules should also help: 

Cleaning and renewal of electrolyte is necessary when: 

(a) Sediment has risen to within one-half inch of the bottom 
of the plates. 

(b) Much foreign material is floating in the electrolyte, or 
electrolyte is of a deep brown color. 

Replacement of parts is necessary when 

(a) Separators are cracked or warped. See page 269 for 
Separator troubles. 

(b) Plates are defective. See rules on pages 260 to 269. 








o 


70 


THE AUTOMOBILE 


STORAGE BATTERY 


PREST-O-LITE FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES 


The Prest-O-Lite battery which is designed for use in con¬ 
nection with farm lighting plants is known as the FPL type. 
Cells of 7, 9, 11, 13 and 15 plates are made, the number of plates 
being indicated by putting the figure in front of the type letters. 
A seven plate cell is thus designated as a 7 FPL cell, which has 

an 80 ampere hour capacity at 
the 8 hour continuous dis¬ 
charge rate. 

The FPL cell, the construc¬ 
tion of which is shown in Figs. 
185, 188, and 189, has a sealed 
glass jar with a lead-antimony 
cover. The cover construction 
is shown in detail in Figs. 188 
and 189. Insulation between 
the posts and cover is pro¬ 
vided by a hard rubber bush¬ 
ing, a hard rubber washer, 
and a soft rubber washer. 
The bushing is shown at C in 
Fig. 189, the hard rubber 
washer at I, and the soft 
rubber washer at F. Fig. 188 
shows how these are as¬ 
sembled. The bushing is 

Fig. 188. Sectional View of Presto- shaped like a “T” with a hole 
Lite FPL Cell drilled in the stem. The stem 

of the bushing fits down into 
the post hole in the cover, the flange at the top resting on the 
raised portion of the cover around the post hole. The post has a 
shoulder a little less than halfway up from its lower end, as shown 
at H in Fig. 189. Upon this shoulder is placed the hard rubber 
washer, and upon the hard rubber washer is placed the soft rubber 
washer. This assembly is fastened to the cover by the “peening’ 
process used in Prest-O-Lite automobile batteries as described on 
page 320. This forces the soft rubber washer tightly against the 
cover so as to make a leak proof joint between the bushing and 








FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES 


371 


cover. I lie ring of lead formed around the posts by the peening 
process supports the posts, plates, and separators, which therefore 
aro suspended from the cell cover. The plate straps extend hori¬ 
zontally across the tops of the plates, and thus also act as “hold 
downs” for the separators. The separators are held up by two 
rectangular rubber bridges which fit into slotted extension lugs 



Fig. 189. Parts of Prest-O-Lite FPL Cell 


cast into the lower corners of the outside negative plates. An 
outside negative having these extension lugs is shown at J in 
Fig. 189. 

Other parts shown in Fig. 189 are: “A” is the vent plug. 
“B” is the lead-antimony cell cover. “D" is a cell connector- 
bolt stud. “E” is a lead strap which is burned to the positive 
cell post, and by means of which the cells are connected to¬ 
gether. “G” is a cell connector-bolt nut. “K” is a wooden 
separator, and “L” a positive plate. 






































372 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


Specific Gravity of Electrolyte. The values of the specific 
gravity of Prest-O-Lite farm lighting batteries are as follows: 
Battery fully charged reads 1.250 
Battery three-fourths charged reads 1.230 
Battery one-lialf charged reads 1.215 
Battery one-fourth charged reads 1.200 
Battery discharged completely reads 1.180 
These readings are to be taken with the electrolyte at a tem¬ 
perature of 80° Fahrenheit. Readings taken at other tempera¬ 
tures should be converted to 80°. To convert readings at a 
lower temperature to the values they would have at 80°, sub¬ 
tract one point for every two and one-half degrees temperature 
difference. For example, suppose a cell reads 1.225 gravity at 
60°. To find what the gravity would be if the temperature of 
the electrolyte were 80° divide the difference between 80° and 
60° by 2i/ 2 , or 80° minus 60° divided by 2 1 /> equals 8. The 
gravity at 80° would therefore be 1.225 minus .008, or 1.217, 
which is the value of specific gravity to use. If the specific 
gravity is read at a higher temperature than 80°, divide the dif¬ 
ference between 80° and the temperature at which the gravity 
reading was taken by 2%, and add the result to the actual 
gravity reading obtained. If, for example, the gravity were 1.225 
at 100°, the gravity at 80° would be 1.225 plus .008, or 1.233. 

Charging Rates. The normal charging rate to be used in 
giving Prest-O-Lite batteries a regular charge or overcharge 
are as follows: 


Battery Charging Rate Battery Charging Rate 

5 F.P.L. 5.0 amps. 11 F.P.L.12.5 amps. 

7 F.P.L. 7.5 amps. 13 F.P.L.15.0 amps. 

9 F.P.L.10.0 amps. 15 F.P.L.17.5 amps. 


Rebuilding Prest-O-Lite Farm Lighting Batteries. 

Opening the Cell. 1 . Make sure that the cell is as fully 
charged as possible. Since it is not very convenient to charge a 
single cell, a good time to open a cell for cleaning and repairing 
is immediately after the battery has been given an overcharge. 
See page 364. 








FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES 


373 


2. Disconnect the cell from the adjoining ones. 

3. Heat a thin bladed putty knife and insert it under the 
edge of the lead-antimony cover to melt the sealing compound. 
Run the knife all round the cover, heating it again if it should 
become too cool to cut the compound readily. 

4. Grasp the lead posts above the cover and lift up gradually. 
This will bring up the cover, plates, and separators. 

5. Place the plates on a clean board for examination. Use the 
instructions given on pages 260 to 269. Do not keep the plates out 
of the electrolyte long enough to let them dry, and the negatives 
to heat up. If you cannot examine the plates as soon as you 
have removed them immerse them in 1.250 acid contained in a lead 
or non-metallic vessel until you can examine them. 

6. In renewing the electrolyte, pour in as much new 1.250 
acid as there was old electrolyte in the jar. (It is assumed that 
the electrolyte was up to the lower ridge of the glass jar before 
the cell was opened.) The new electrolyte must not have a tem¬ 
perature above 100° when it is poured into the jar. 

7. The separators can be pulled out easily when the plates 
are laid on their sides. All that is necessary is to remove the 
small rubber bridge at the bottom corners of the plates. The 
separators can then be pulled out. If the old separators are to 
be used again brush off any material that may be adhering to 
them, and keep them wet with 1.250 acid until they are replaced 
between the plates. Any separators that show cracks or holes, 
or that split while being replaced between the plates should be 

thrown away and new ones used. 

8. It is not necessary to remove the sediment from the bot¬ 
tom of the jar unless it is within one-half inch of the bottom of 
the plates. If the sediment is to be removed, carefully pour off* 
the clear electrolyte into a lead, hard rubber, or earthenware jar, 

if the electrolyte is to be used again. 

9. If one or two of the plates in either positive or negative 

groups need to be replaced it is best to burn a new plate to the 
strap without removing the peened cover. This is done by 
blocking under the row of plate lugs with metal blocks after 
cutting off old plate and cleaning the surface of strap. Insert new 
plate, the lug of which has been cut about *4 inch short, to allow 






374 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


for new metal. Choosing small oblong iron blocks of suitable 
size, build a form about the plate lug which fits same well. Now 
with a torch and burning lead fuse the new plate onto the old 
strap. When cool remove and test joint by pulling and slightly 
twisting the plate at the same time. 

Sometimes one group of a starting and lighting battery may 
be in sufficiently good condition to pay to combine it with a new 
group, but this condition will very rarely, if ever, be met in farm 
lighting cell service. We advise the replacement of the complete 
cell element if either group is worn out, for the cost of repairs 
and of new group will probably not be warranted by the short 
additional life which the remaining old group will give. 

Putting Repaired Cell Back into Service. 10. After having 
finished all necessary cleaning, replacement, or repair, remove all 
old sealing material, return the element with attached lead cover 
to the cell jar. It is not necessary to reseal the cover to the jar 
as this sealing is essential only for insurance against breakage 
or leakage in shipment. 

Add through the vent plug opening sufficient cool acid of 1.250 
Sp. Gr. to re-establish the proper electrolyte level,—which means 
that the electrolyte is brought up to the lower moulded glass 
ridge near the top of jar. 

Connect the cell with any other repaired cells and charge at 
normal rate already indicated under “charging rates” until cell 
voltage reads 2.5 or above, at 80°. The positive to cadmium volt¬ 
age should be at least 0.10 volts less than cell voltage itself. 
When this condition is obtained cell may be replaced in operat¬ 
ing circuit with others and should give satisfactory service. 

* 

EXIDE FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES. 

Exide Farm lighting Batteries are made with sealed glass jars, 
open glass jars, and sealed rubber jars, each of which will be 
described. 

*■ A f jr j* % • - • 

> 1 , > , \ 

Batteries with Sealed Glass Jars. 

Two types with sealed glass jars are made, these being the 
Delco Light Type, and the Ilyray-Exide type. 








FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES 375 

1. Delco Light Type. This type is shown in Fig. 184. The 
cell shown is a pilot cell, there being one of these in each bat¬ 
tery. The battery gauge, or hydrometer, floats in a pocket 
formed in the jar wall, and indicates the state of charge of the 




REMOVE 

VENT 

PLUG 


■ 


J*' i 


Fig. 190. Heating Rubber Cover. “Delco-Light” Cell 


battery, floating at the top of the pocket when the battery is 
charged, and sinking to the bottom of the pocket when the bat¬ 
tery is discharged. 

The plate groups are supported from the cover, the weight 
being carried by the wooden cover supports as shown in Fig. 
184. The strap posts are threaded, and are clamped to the 














376 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


cover and supports by means of alloy nuts, just as is the case in 
Exide automobile batteries. 

A hard rubber supporting rod or lock pin extending across 
the bottoms of the plates holds the separators in position and 



Fig. 191. Loosening Rubber Cover. “Delco-Light” Cell 


prevents the plates from flaring out at the bottom. A soft rub¬ 
ber bumper fastened on each end of the rod acts as a cushion to 
prevent jar breakage in shipping. 

The hard rubber cover overlaps the flanged top of the jar, to 
which it is sealed with special compound. 

When handling cells for repair do not lift them by means of 














FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES 


377 


the terminal posts, as there is danger of the sealing compound 
letting go, allowing the jar to fall and break. In disassembling 
a cell, first heat the cover cautiously all the way around the 
edge to soften the sealing compound. This may be done by use 
of steam, blow torch, or other flame. (Fig. 190.) If an open 
flame is used be sure to remove the vent plug and blow air into 
the vent to expel any gas that may be present, and might cause 



Fig. 192. Inserting Perforated Rubber Separator. “Delco-Light” Element 

an explosion. Pass the flame quickly around the cover, not hold¬ 
ing it in one place long enough to burn the rubber. 

After the sealing compound is softened the cover may be 
loosened by inserting a putty knife under the edge. (Fig. 191.) 
The entire element, with cover attached, can now be lifted out 
of the jar. 

The sealing nuts are now removed by means of a special 
wrench provided by the Exide Company for the purpose, and 
cover taken off. The small lead pins which hold the soft rubber 
bumpers on the lock pins are bent over to lock them in place 
and can be straightened and pulled out with small nosed pliers. 







378 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 



The lock pins are now drawn out, and the separators can be re¬ 
moved and groups separated in the usual manner. 

In reassembling after repairs have been made, proceed as 
follows: 

Slip the positive and negative groups together, rest on their 
edges, and insert a wood and rubber separator together between 
each positive and negative plate. (Fig. 192.) The rubber sheet 


Fig. 193. Inserting Plate Support Lock Pin. “Delco-Liglit” Element 

goes against the positive plate and the flat side of the wood sep¬ 
arator against the negative. When all the separators are in 
place, count them to be sure none are missing. 

To insert lock pin, place a soft rubber bumper over the end of 
a pin, turning the bumper so that the slot registers with the 
hole near the end of the pin. Slip one of the small lead pins 
through the bumper slot and lock pin hole, bending over the 
small end to lock it in place. 

Slide the lock pin through the holes provided at the bottom of 












FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES 


379 


both outside negative plates, the feet on the inside plates alter¬ 
nating positive and negative on opposite sides of the pin (Fig. 
193). Now place a rubber bumper over the other end of the 



Fig. 194. Tapping Separators into Place. “Delco-Light” Element 


pin, pinching the bottom of the element tight with one hand, 
and insert small lead pin as before. 

Stand the element upon blocks of wood with sufficient space 
between them to accommodate the projections on the bottom of 
the plates (Fig. 194). 

Carefully tap the edges of the separators with a wood block 
until they project equally on each side (Fig. 194). 




















































380 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


Place one of the soft rubber gaskets on each terminal post and 
put the cover in place, seating it on the gaskets. 

Place one of the cover supports over each terminal so that it 
rests across the top of the cover. Screw on the sealing nuts care¬ 
fully and tighten them with the sealing nut wrench. They should 
be lubricated with a little graphite mixed to a paste with water, 
but never with grease or vaseline. 

The element can now be lowered into the jar, resealing being 
unnecessary when cell is not to be shipped. In the case of a pilot 
cell, place the pilot ball (battery gauge) in the pocket before 
lowering the element, and tilt the jar to prevent the ball falling 
out while element is going in. The positive or short terminal 
strap is placed next to the pocket. 

The Hyray-Exide type is shown in Fig. 195. The plates rest 
upon supports consisting of two vertical hard rubber pieces held 
in place by a ribbon of lead alloy. The supports can be seen in 
the bottom of the jar. The separators are of grooved wood and 
are held down by a wood block under each plate strap. The 
straps extend to the corners of the jar and the space between 
straps is bridged by a rubber sheet provided with a hole in the 
center. The cell is sealed by hot compound which is poured 
over the straps and rubber sheet. Before pouring, a greased 
core block is placed in the hole in the rubber sheet so that after 
the compound hardens and the core is removed there will be a 
hole through the compound and rubber sheet through which 
water may be added as required. 

To unseal a “Hyray-Exide” cell, run a hot, thin bladed putty 
knife between the jar walls and sealing compound. When re¬ 
installing an element, first place in the jar the alloy ribbon and 
the two hard rubber pieces, with the grooved edge of the rubber 
uppermost. Put two small rubber bands vertically across each 
end of the element from top to bottom to prevent the separators 
falling down when later replacing the element in the jar. 

Batteries with Open Glass Jars. 

Batteries with open glass jars, in addition to the conducting 
lug, have two hanging lugs for each plate. The plates are hung 



FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES 


381 


from the jar walls by these hanging lugs, as shown in Figs. 186 
and 196. The plate straps, instead of being horizontal are ver¬ 
tical and provided with a tail so that adjacent cells may be bolted 
together by bolt connectors through the end of the tail. 

1. The Hyray-Exide type is shown in Fig. 196. It has a 
grooved wood separator between each positive and negative plate, 
Fig. 187. fllie separators are kept from floating up by a glass 
“hold-down ’ laid across the top. The separators are provided 



Fig. 195. Hyray-Exide Cell 
With Sealed Glass Jar 


Fig. 196. Hyray-Exide Cell 
with Open Glass Jar 


at the top with a pin which rests on the adjoining plates. The 
pins together with the plate glass hold-downs keep the separators 
in position. 

To remove an element it is simply necessary to unbolt the con¬ 
nectors, remove the glass cover and hold-down and lift out the 
element. 

2. The Chloride Accumulator type is shown in Fig. 186. It 
differs from the Hyray-Exide only in type of plates and sep¬ 
arators. The positive plates are known as Manchester positives 
and have the active material in the form of corrugated buttons 
which are held in a thick grid, as shown in Fig. 197. The but¬ 
tons are brown in color, the same as all positive active material. 


































382 


THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 




The separators, instead of being grooved wood, are each a sheet 
of wood with three dowels pinned to it as shown in Fig. 187. 

The element is removed the same as in the Hyray-Exide type. 

Batteries with Sealed Rubber Jars. 


1. The Hyray-Exide type is shown in Fig. 198. The cell is 
sealed by a half-inch layer of compound which is poured over 
an eighth-inch cover sheet of hard rubber. The rubber cover has 
two holes for the cell posts, and rests on the plate straps. A 



Fig. 197. Manchester 
Positive Plates 


CSMJ&Z& 

Fig. 198. Hyray-Exide Cell 
With Sealed Rubber Jar 


third hole is tapped in the center of the cover and into this is 
screwed the hard rubber cylinder vent before the compound is 
poured. The cylinder vent is threaded at the top for receiving 
a hard rubber vent cap. Inside the cell there are two small wood 
blocks, one under each plate strap. One of these is shown in 
Fig. 198. Their function is to hold down the wood seperators. 
The jar is provided with ridges in the bottom upon which the 
plates rest, exactly the same as for an automobile battery. The 
plates are separated by one grooved wood separator between 
each two plates, the grooved side against the positive plate. 

To unseal a cell remove the connectors and run a hot putty 
knife all the way through the sealing compound close to the jar 
wall. When reassembling a cell do not omit the two wood blocks 
used for holding down the separators. 














Definitions and Descriptions of 
Terms and Parts 


Acid. As used in this book refers to sulphuric acid (H 2 S0 4 ), the active 
component of the electrolyte, or a mixture of sulphuric acid and water. 

Active Material. The active portion of the battery plates; peroxide of 
lead on the positives and spongy metallic lead on the negatives. 

Alloy. A homogenous combination of any two metals. In the case of 
lead, the addition of any other metal makes an alloy, harder than 
lead itself. 

Alternating Current. Electric current which does not flow in one direc¬ 
tion only, like direct current, but rapidly reverses its direction or 
“alternates” in polarity so that it will not charge a battery. 

Ampere. The unit of measure of the rate of flow of electric current. 

Ampere Hour. The product resulting from multiplication of amperes 
flowing by time of flow in hours, e. g., a battery supplying 10 amperes 
for 8 hours gives 80 ampere hours. See note under “Volt” for more 
complete explanation of current flow. 

Battery. Two or more electrical cells, electrically connected so that com¬ 
bination furnishes current as a unit. 

Battery Terminals. Devices attached to the positive post of one end cell 
and the negative of the other, by means of which the battery is con¬ 
nected to the car circuit. 

Bridge (or Rib). Wedge-shaped vertical projection from bottom or rubber 
jar on which plates rest and by which they are supported. 

Buckling. Warping or bending of the battery plates. 

Burning. A term used to describe the operation of joining two pieces of 
lead by melting them at practically the same instant so they may 
run together as one continuous piece. Usually done with mixture of 
oxygen and hydrogen or acetylene gases, hydrogen and compressed air, 
or oxygen and illuminating gas. 

Burning Strip. A convenient form of lead, in strips, for filling up the 
joint in making burned connections. 

Cadmium. A metal used in about the shape of a pencil for obtaining 
voltage of positive or negative plates. It is dipped in the electrolyte 
but not allowed to come in contact with plates. 

Capacity. The number of ampere hours a battery can supply at a given 
rate of current flow after being fully charged, e. g., a battery may 

383 



384 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


be capable of supplying 10 amperes of current for 8 hours before it is 
exhausted. Its capacity is 80 ampere hours at the 8 hours rate of 
current flow. It is necessary to state the rate of flow, since same 
battery if discharged at 20 amperes would not last for 4 hours but 
for a shorter period, say 3 hours. Hence, its capacity at the 3 hour 
rate would be 3x20—60 ampere hours. 

Case. The containing box which holds the battery cells. 

Cell. The battery unit, consisting of an element complete with electrolyte, 
in its jar with cover. 

Cell Connector. The metal link which connects the positive post of one 
cell to the negative post of the adjoining cell. 

Charge. Passing direct current through a battery in the direction oppo¬ 
site to that of discharge, in order to put back the energy used on 
discharge. 

Charge Rate. The proper rate of current to use in charging a battery from 
an outside source. It is expressed in amperes and varies for different 
sized cells. 

Connector. Solid or flexible part for connecting positive pole of one cell 
to negative pole of another, etc., or to terminal. 

Corrosion. The attack of metal parts by acid from the electrolyte; it is 
the result of lack of cleanliness. 

Cover. The rubber cover which closes each individual cell; it is flanged for 
sealing compound to insure an effective seal. 

Cycle. One charge and discharge. 

Density. Specific gravity. 

Developing. The first cycle or cycles of a new or rebuilt battery to bring 
about proper electro-chemical conditions to give rated capacity. 

Diffusion. Pertaining to movement of acid within the pores of plates. 
(See Equalization.) 

Discharge. The flow of current from a battery through a circuit, opposite 
of “charge.” 

Dry. Term frequently applied to cell containing insufficient electrolyte. 

Electrolyte. The conducting fluid of electro-chemical devices; for lead-acid 
storage batteries it consists of about two parts of water to one of 
chemically pure sulphuric acid, by weight. 

Element. Positive group, negative group and separators. 

Equalization. The result of circulation and diffusion within the cell which 
accompanies charge and discharge. Difference in capacity at various 
rates is caused by the time required for this feature. 

Equalizing. Term used to describe the making uniform of varying specific 
gravities in different cells of the same battery, by adding or removing 
water or electrolyte. 

Evaporation. Loss of water from electrolyte from heat or charging. 

Filling Plug. The plug which fits in and closes the orifice of the filling 
tube in the cell cover. 


DEFINITIONS 


385 


Finishing Rate. The current in amperes at which a battery may be 
charged for twenty-four hours or more. Also the charging rate used 
near the end of a charge when cells begin to gas. 

Flooding. Overflowing through the filling tube. 

Forming. Electro-chemical process of making pasted grid or other plate 
types into storage battery plates. (Often confused with Developing.) 

Foreign Material. Objectionable substances. 

Freshening Charge. A charge given to a battery which has been standing 
idle, to keep it fully charged. 

Gassing. The giving off of oxygen gas at positive plates and hydrogen at 
negatives, which begins when charge is something more than half- 
completed—depending on the rate. 

Generator System. An equipment including a generator for automatically 
recharging the battery, in contradistinction to a straight storage 
system where the battery has to be removed to be recharged. 

Gravity. A contraction of the term “specific gravity,” which means the 
density compared to water as a standard. 

Grid. The metal framework of a plate, supporting the active material 
and provided with a lug for conducting the current and for attach¬ 
ment to the strap. 

Group. A set of plates, either positive or negative, joined to a strap. 
Groups do not include separators. 

Hold-Down. Device for keeping separators from floating or working up. 

Hold-Down Clips. Brackets for the attachment of bolts for holding the 
battery securely in position on the car. 

Hydrogen Flame. A very hot and clean flame of hydrogen gas and oxy¬ 
gen, acetylene, or compressed air used for making burned connections. 

Hydrogen Generator. An apparatus for generating hydrogen gas for lead 
burning. 

Hydrometer. An instrument for measuring the specific gravity of the 
electrolyte. 

Hydrometer Syringe. A glass barrel enclosing a hydrometer and pro¬ 
vided with a rubber bulb for drawing up electrolyte. 

Jar. The hard rubber container holding the element and electrolyte. 

Lead Burning. Making a joint by melting together the metal of the 
parts to be joined. 

Lug. The extension from the top frame of each plate, connecting the 
plate to the strap. 

Maximum Gravity. The highest specific gravity which the electrolyte 
will reach by continued charging, indicating that no acid remains 
in the plates. 

Mud. (See Sediment.) 

Negative. The terminal of a source of electrical energy as a cell, battery 
or generator through which current returns to complete ciicuit. Gen¬ 
erally marked “Neg.” or “—.” 


386 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


Ohm. The unit of electrical resistance. The smaller the wire conductor the 
greater is the resistance. Six hundred and sixty-five feet of No. 14 
wire (size used in house lighting circuit) offers 1 ohm resistance to 
current flow. 

Oil of Vitriol. Commercial name for concentrated sulphuric acid (1.835 
specific gravity). This is never used in a battery and would quickly 
ruin it. 

Over-Charge. Continuance of charge beyond that apparently or supposedly 
necessary to improve condition of cells. 

Over-Discharge. The carrying of discharge beyond proper cell voltage; 
shortens life if carried far enough and done frequently. 

Paste. The mixture of lead oxide or spongy lead and other substances 
which is put into grids. 

Plate. The combination of grid and paste properly “formed.” Positives 
are reddish brown and negatives slate gray. 

Polarity. An electrical condition. The positive terminal (or pole) of a 
cell or battery or electrical circuit is said to have positive polarity; 
the negative, negative polarity. 

Positive. The terminal of a source of electrical energy as a cell, battery 
or generator from which the current flows. Generally marked “Pos.” 
or 

Post. The portion of the strap extending through the cell cover, by 
means of which connection is made to the adjoining cell or to the 
car circuit. 

Potential Difference. Abbreviated P. D. Found on test curves. Synony¬ 
mous with voltage. 

Rate. Number of amperes for charge or discharge. Also used to express 
time for either. 

Rectifier. Apparatus for converting alternating current into direct current. 

Resistance. Material (usually lamps or wire) of low conductivity in¬ 
serted in a circuit to retard the flow of current. By varying the 
resistance, the amount of current can be regulated. 

Also the property of an electrical circuit whereby the flow of current 
is impeded. Resistance is measured in ohms. Analogous to the 
impediment offered by wall of a pipe to flow of water therein. 

Rheostat. An electrical appliance used to raise or lower the resistance 
of a circuit and correspondingly to decrease or increase the current 
flowing. 

Rib. (See Bridge.) 

Ribbed. (See Separator.) 

Reversal. That which occurs to voltage readings when cells are dis¬ 
charged below a certain critical point or charged in the wrong di¬ 
rection. 

Rubber Sheets. Thin, perforated hard rubber sheets used in combination 
with the wood separators in some types of batteries. They are placed 
between the grooved side of the wood separators and the positive plate. 



DEFINITIONS 


387 


Sealing. Making tight joints between jar and cover; usually with a black, 
thick, acid-proof compound. 

Sediment. Loosened or worn out particles of active material fallen to 
the bottom of cells; frequently called “mud.” 

Sediment Space. That part of jar between bottom and top of bridge. 

Separator. An insulator between plates of opposite polarity; usually of 
wood, rubber or combination of both. Separators are generally cor¬ 
rugated or ribbed to insure proper distance between plates and to 
avoid too great displacement of electrolyte. 

Short Circuit. A metallic connection between the positive and negative 
plates within a cell. The plates may be in actual contact or material 
may lodge and bridge across. If the separators are in good condition, 
a short circuit is unlikely to occur. 

Spacers. Wood strips used in some types to separate the cells in the 
case, and divided to provide a space for the tie bolts. 

Specific Gravity. The density of the electrolyte compared to water as a 
standard. It indicates the strength and is measured by the hydrom¬ 
eter. 

Spray. Fine particles of electrolyte carried up from the surface by gas 
bubbles. (See Gassing.) 

Starting Rate. The maximum current in amperes at which a discharged 
battery may be charged at the beginning of a charge. The starting 
rate is reduced to the finishing rate when the cells begin to gas. It 
is also reduced at any time during the charge if the temperature of the 
electrolyte rises to or above 105° Fahrenheit. 

Starvation. The result of giving insufficient charge in relation to the 
amount of discharge, resulting in poor serviec and injury to the 
battery. 

Strap. The leaden casting to which the plates of a group are joined. 

Sulphate. Common term for lead sulphate. (Pb SOL) 

Sulphated. Term used to describe cells in an under-charged condition, 
from either over-discharging without corresponding long charges or 
from standing idle some time and being self-discharged. 

Sulphate Reading. A peculiarity of cell voltage when plates are consid¬ 
erably sulphated, where charging voltage shows abnormally high fig¬ 
ures before dropping gradually to normal charging voltage. 

Terminal. Part to which outside wires are connected. 

Vent, Vent Plug or Vent-Cap. Hard or soft rubber part inserted in cover 
to retain atmospheric pressure within the cell, while preventing loss 
of electrolyte from spray. It allows gases formed in the cell to 
escape, prevents electrolyte from spilling, and keeps dirt out of the 
cell. 

Volt. The commercial unit of pressure in an electric circuit. Voltage 
is measured by a voltmeter. Analogous to pressure or head of water 
flow through pipes. 




388 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY 


NOTE.—Just as increase of pressure causes more volume of water to 
flow through a given pipe so increase of voltage (by putting more cells in 
circuit) will cause more amperes of current to flow in same circuit. De¬ 
creasing size of pipes is increasing resistance and decreases flow of water, 
so also introduction of resistance in an electrical circuit decreases current 
flow with a given voltage or pressure. 

Wall. Jar sides and ends. 

Washing. Removal of sediment from cells after taking out elements; 
usually accompanied by rinsing of groups, replacement of wood sep¬ 
arators and renewal of electrolyte. 

Watt. The commercial unit of electrical power, and is the product of volt¬ 
age of circuit by amperes flowing. One ampere flowing under pressure 
of one volt represents one watt of power. 

Watt Hour. The unit of electrical work. It is the product of power ex¬ 
pended by time of expenditure, e. g., 10 amperes flowing under 32 
volts pressure for 8 hours gives 2560 watt hours. 


INDEX 


A 

Page 

Acetic Acid from improperly treated separators. Ill 

Acetylene and Oxygen lead burning outfit. 177 

Acid. Handling and mixing. 196 

Acid. How lost while battery is on car. 81 

Acid is added to electrolyte instead of water. What to do if. 171 

Acid must never be added to electrolyte while battery is on car. 81 

Acid is splashed in eye. What to do if. 220 

Active material. Effect of quantity, arrangement, and porosity of, on 

capacity of battery. 57 

Active material. Resistance of. 65 

Adding electrolyte instead of water causes sulphation. 97 

Age of battery. Effect of, on capacity. 63 

Age of battery. Codes for determining. 226 

Alcohol torch for lead burning. 179 

Allowing battery to stand idle causes sulphation. 95 

Allowing electrolyte to fall below tops of plates causes sulphation. 96 

Applying pastes to grids...... 15 

Area of plate surface. Effect of, on capacity of battery. 57 

Arrangement of active materials. Effect of, on capacity of battery. 57 

B 

Batteries in general. 5 

Battery will not charge. 118 

Bench charge for sulphated battery. 173 

Bench charge. If specific gravity will not rise above 1.200 on,. 174 

Bench charge. If specific gravity will not rise above 1.260 on,. 173 

Bench charge. If specific gravity rises above 1.300 on,... 178 

Bench charge. Rates for. 172 

Bench charge. Time required for... 172 

Bench for charging batteries. 147 

Blistered negatives . 107 

Buckled positives . 108 

Buckling causes loose active material.. 102 

Buckling. Causes of.... 98 


389 





































390 


INDEX 


Page 

Bulged negatives . 107 

Burning lead mould. 143 

Burning on terminals and top connectors. 301 

Burning on new plates. 280 

Burning rack . 145 

C 

Cables must have sufficient slack. 79 

Cadmium test . 205 

Capacity. Causes of loss of. 119 

Capacity. Effect of age of battery on. . .. 63 

Capacity. Effect of area of plate surface on. 57 

Capacity. Effect of circulation of electrolyte on.. . . . .. 59 

Capacity. Effect of operating conditions on.. . /. 60 

Capacity. Effect of quantity and strength of electrolyte on. 58 

Capacity. Effect of quantity arrangement, and porosity of active ma¬ 
terials on . 57 

Capacity. Effect of rate of discharge on. 59 

Capacity. Effect of temperature on . 61 

Capacity. Factors upon which it depends. 56 

Capacity of storage batteries. 56 

Carbon arc for lead burning. 179 

Care of battery on car when in service. 74 

Care of battery on car when not in service. ; . 92 

Carrier for batteries. . . ... . . 144 

Case. Cleaning and painting after rebuilding battery . 306 

Case. Causes and effects of rotted. 242 

Case. Manufacture of . 27 

Case. Repairing the . 287 

Case troubles . 113 

Cause of voltage drop when battery is taken off charge. 47 

Causes of high operating temperatures. 91 

Charge. Battery will not take. 241 

Charge. Bench . 170 

Charge. Cell voltage on... 47 

Charge. Changes at negative plate during. 54 

Charge. Changes at positive plate during. 55 

Charge. Chemical actions that take place during. 34 

Charge. If specific gravity will not rise on. 240 

Charge. Ionic relations in a cell on. 43 

Charge. Preliminary, before working on plates. 273 

Charge. Progress of, determined by specific gravity. 54 

Charge. Rapid rise in voltage during first part of. 53 












































INDEX 391 

Page 

Charge. When necessary . 171 

Charged cell on open circuit. Ionic relations in... 38 

Charging at high rates causes buckling. 99 

Charging battery while on car. 169 

Charging bench . 147 

Charging equipment . 155 

Charging farm lighting batteries . 363 

Charging methods . 167 

Charging only a part of a plate causes shedding. 101 

Charging sulphated plates at too high a rate causes shedding. 101 

Charging the rebuilt battery. 306 

Charging rates for bench charge. 172 

Charging rate of generator on car. 87 

Charging rate of multiple section batteries. 88 

Charging rate must be greater than lamp load. 71 

Chemical actions. How they produce electricity. 37 

Chemical actions that take place during charge. 35 

Chemical actions that take place during discharge.. 34 

Chemical actions which produce electricity. 31 

Chemical elements found in plates and electrolyte. 33 

Comparison of elementary and secondary cells. 5 

Compound. Softening with steam. 250 

Conditions of operation. Engine not running. 68 

Conditions of operation. Engine running . 69 

Conditions of operation on the car . 67 

Conditions of operation when electromagnetic cutout is used. 71 

Conditions of operation when manual cutout is used.... 69 

Conditions of operation when mechanical cutout is used. 69 

Connector troubles .. 114 

Connectors. Burning on, after rebuilding battery. 301 

Connectors. Drilling off . 248 

Corroded grids . 104 

Corroded terminals. Causes and effects of. 242 

Corrosion of connectors and terminals.76, 114 

Covers. Putting on, after rebuilding battery. 293 

Cracked jars. Causes of. 112 

Current. How it flows through the electrolyte. 38 

Cutout relay. How to check action of. 234 

D 

Dead cells. Causes of. 118 

Defective grid alloy causes buckling. 99 

Definitions and descriptions of terms and parts.383-388 

Density (See specific gravity) 











































392 


INDEX 


Page 

Determination of condition of battery. 221 

Determining height of electrolyte in cells. 80 

Dim lights. Causes of, and remedies for. 243 

Directions for adding water to replace evaporation. 81 

Discharge apparatus. 166 

Discharge. Causes and effect of rapid discharge of batteries. 242 

Discharge. Changes at negative plate during. 51 

Discharge. Changes at positive plate during. 52 

Discharge. Changes in specific gravity during. 49 

Discharge. Equation of chemical changes that take place during. 35 

Discharge. High rate of, not injurious to battery. 60 

Discharge. Low rates of, to be avoided more than high rates. 60 

Discharge. Rate of, effect on capacity of battery. 59 

Discharge test. High rate.... 188 

Discharge. Voltage changes during. 47 

Discharge. Voltage rise when discharge is stopped. 49 

Discharge. What takes place during. 46 

Discharge. When it should be stopped. 48 

Discharged battery. Causes of. 117 

Discharging cell. Ionic relations in. 41 

Disintegrated positives . 108 

Distilled water only must be added to replace evaporation. 80 

Drilling off top connectors and terminals. 248 

Dry shipment of batteries. 30 

Dry storage of batteries which have been in service. 194 

E 

Efficiency of battery less in cold weather than in warm weather. 72 

Electrolyte. Adjusting specific gravity of, after charging. 306 

Electrolyte. Allowing, to fall below tops of plates causes sulphation.... 96 

Electrolyte. Causes and effects of low level of. 239 

Electrolyte. Changes in specific gravity of, during charge. 54 

Electrolyte. Changes in specific gravity of, during discharge. 49 

Electrolyte. Effect of circulation of, on capacity. 59 

Electrolyte. Effect of temperature on specific gravity of. 89 

Electrolyte. Filling jars with, after rebuilding battery. 291 

Electrolyte. Foaming of . 116 

Electrolyte. How current flows through the. 38 

Electrolyte. How it is lost. 81 

Electrolyte. How to measure specific gravity of. 85 

Electrolyte leaking at top of battery. Causes and effects of. 241 

Electrolyte. Milky appearance of. 115 

Electrolyte. Resistance of . 65 













































INDEX 


393 


Page 

Electrolyte. Mixing . 196 

Electrolyte. Specific gravity of, for farm lighting batteries. 350 

Electrolyte. Specific gravity of, for rebuilt batteries. 292 

Electrolyte. Specific gravity of, how to measure. 85 

Electrolyte. Specific gravity of, in tropical countries. 58 

Electrolyte. Specific gravity of, in Prest-O-Lite farm lighting batteries. 372 

Electrolyte trouble . 115 

Electrolyte. Why specific gravity of 1.280-1.300 indicates full charge. . 58 

Electrolytic rectifier . 160 

Electromagnetic cutout. Operating conditions when used. 71 

Elementary primary and secondary cells. Comparison of. 5 

Elements. Putting in jars after rebuilding battery. 291 

Elements. Reassembling after rebuilding battery. 288 

Equations of chemical actions on charge. 35 

Equations of chemical actions on discharge. 34 

Eveready batteries. Repairing . 334 

Eveready batteries. Special instructions for. 332 

Eveready batteries. Table of capacities of.338, 339 

Examination of batteries that come into repairshop. 221 

Examination of plates after opening battery.257 to 260 

Excessive charging rate causes shedding. 100 

Exide batteries. Age code for. 226 

Exide batteries. Filling tube construction. 23 

Exide batteries. Methods of holding jars in case. 310 

Exide batteries. Opening . 311 

Exide batteries. Reassembling plates . 313 

Exide batteries. Sealing . 314 

Exide batteries shipped dry. Putting into service. 182 

Exide batteries. Special instructions for.. 308 

Exide batteries. Table of initial and repair charge rates for. 183 

Exide batteries. Type numbers for . 310 

Exide batteries with double flange covers. 308 

Exide batteries with single flange covers. 308 

Exide batteries. Work on separators, jars and cases. 312 

Exide farm lighting batteries. Chloride-Accumulator type. 381 

Exide farm lighting batteries. Delco-Light type . 375 

Exide farm lighting batteries. Hyray type .380, 381, 382 

Exide farm lighting batteries. Special instructions for. 374 

F 

Farm lighting batteries. 347 to 382 

Farm lighting batteries. Care of . 361 

Farm lighting batteries. Care of plant in operation. 358 









































394 


INDEX 


Page 

Farm lighting batteries. Charging . 363 

Farm lighting batteries. Charging equipment . 352 

Farm lighting batteries. Charging rates for Prest-O-Lite. 372 

Farm lighting batteries. Chloride Accumulator type. 381 

Farm lighting batteries. Delco Light type. 375 

Farm lighting batteries. Determination of condition of. 362 

Farm lighting batteries. Discharging . 366 

Farm lighting batteries. Electrolyte . 350 

Farm lighting batteries. Hyray-Exide type.380, 381, 382 

Farm lighting batteries. Installation of . 357 

Farm lighting batteries. Jars . 348 

Farm lighting batteries. Location of plant. 356 

Farm lighting batteries. Rebuilding Prest-O-Lite . 372 

Farm lighting batteries. Selection of plant. 354 

Farm lighting batteries. Separators . 350 

Farm lighting batteries. Special instruction for Exide . 374 

Farm lighting batteries. Special instruction for Prest-O-Lite . 370 

Farm lighting batteries. Specific gravities for Prest-O-Lite. 372 

Farm lighting batteries. Troubles . 367 

Farm lighting batteries. Wiring . 356 

Filling tube constructions .. 24 

Filling tube construction. Exide . 26 

Filling tube construction. U. S. L.. 25 

Floor of workshop. 128 

Foaming of electrolyte. Causes of. 116 

Forming plates . 15 

Formulas for pastes used in plates. 13 

Freezing causes shedding..... 101 

Freezing points of electrolyte at various specific gravities. 92 

Frozen battery. What to do with. 260 

Frozen positives . 108 

G 

Gasoline torch for lead burning. 179 

Gassing causes shedding. 101 

General operating conditions which govern action of battery. 71 

Granulated negatives. Causes of. 106 

Gravity (See specific gravity) 

Grids. Causes of corroded. 104 

Grids. Manufacture of. 11 

Grids. Resistance of. 64 


H 

Handling and mixing acid. 196 

Heating of negatives when exposed to air... 106 










































INDEX 


395 


Page 

High rate discharge test. 188 

High specific gravity. Causes and effects of. 239 

How cadmium tests are made. 206 

How chemical actions produce electricity. 37 

How current Hows through the electrolyte. 38 

How to measure specific gravity of electrolyte... 85 

How to take care of battery on the car. 74 

Hydrogen and Compressed Air lead burning outfit. 179 

Hydrogen and Oxygen lead burning outfit. 177 

Hydrometer. Operation of, and instructions for use of. 84 

I 

Idle Battery. Loss of charge in.. 121 

Idle battery sulphates. 95 

Illuminating Gas and Oxygen lead burning outfit. 177 

Improperly treated separators develop acetic acid. Ill 

Impurities cause sulphation. 97 

Impurities. Complete discussion of. .!,. 102 

Inspection of battery to determine height of electrolyte. 79 

Installing battery on car. 190 

Internal resistance of cell. 64 

Ionic relations in cell on charge. 43 

Ionic relations in a charged cell on open circuit. 38 

Ionic relation in a discharging cell.. 41 

Ions . 38 

J 

Jar- trouble . HI 

Jars. Manufacture of . 20 

Jars. Removing defective . 286 

Jars. Testing . 285 

Jars. Work on . 284 

K 

Keep battery clean and dry. 15 

Keep battery fastened firmly in place on car. 78 

Keep battery terminals and top connectors covered with vaseline. 76 

Keep interior of battery box clean and dry. 75 

L 

Lead burning apparatus. 

Lead mould . 14 ° 

Leave the vent plugs in when charging. 176 






































396 


INDEX 


Page 


Light for workshop. 134 

Lights. Causes and remedies for dim. 243 

Loose active material. Causes of. 102 

Loose connectors and terminals. 115 

Loss of active material. Causes of. 100 

Loss of capacity. Causes of. 110 

Loss of charge in an idle battery. 121 

Low gravity. Causes and effects of. 236 

Low level of electrolyte. Causes and elfects of. 239 

Low voltage. Causes and effects of. 23G 


M 

Manual cutout. Conditions of operation when used. . . . 

Manufacture of battery case. 

Manufacture of battery jars . 

Manufacture of battery plates . 

Manufacture of separators . 

Manufacture of storage batteries. 

Manufacture of sulphuric acid. 

Marking the rebuilt battery. 

Mechanical cutout. Conditions of operation when used 

Mechanical rectifier . 

Mercury arc rectifier... 

Methods of generating electricity. 

Milky electrolyte. Causes of. 

Mixing electrolyte . 

Motor-generator sets . 

Mould for making burning lead. 

Multiple section batteries. Charging rates of. 

Multiple section batteries. Troubles with. 

N 

Negative plate. Changes at, during charge. 

Negative plate. Changes at, during discharge. 

Negatives blistered . 

Negatives bulged . 

Negatives granulated. Causes of. 

Negatives. Heating of, when exposed to air. 

Negatives. Washing and pressing. 

Negatives. When new are required. 

Negatives with roughened surface. 

Negatives with soft, mushy active material. 

Negatives with very hard active material. 


69 

27 

20 

11 

17 

11 

19 

305 

69 

164 

158 

5 

115 

196 

155 

143 

88 

88 


. ... 54 

. ... 51 

. ... 107 
107, 268 
. . .. 106 
. .. . 106 
. . . . 275 
. . .. 281 
. .. . 107 
.... 107 
.... 107 









































INDEX 


397 


Page 

New batteries. Putting into service. 180 

Non-uniform distribution of current over plates causes buckling. 99 

Normal shedding . 100 

0 

Open circuit voltage readings worthless. 208 

Open circuits in battery. Causes of. 116 

Opening batteries. Directions for. 246 

Opening batteries. When necessary and when unnecessary. 245 

Operating conditions in summer . 72 

Operating conditions in winter . 72 

Operating conditions which govern action of battery. 71 

Operation with battery in discharged condition causes buckling. 99 

Overcharged batteries . 265 

Overcharging causes shedding. 100 

Overdischarge causes buckling. 99 

Overdischarge causes loose active material. 102 

Overdischarge causes sulphation. 95 

Overheating of battery. Causes and effects of.82, 240 

Oxygen and Acetylene lead burning outfit. 177 

Oxygen and Hydrogen lead burning outfit. 177 

Oxygen and Illuminating Gas lead burning outfit.. .. 177 

P 

Painting and cleaning case after rebuilding battery. 306 

Painting case after charging battery... 176 

Pastes used in plates. 13 

Philadelphia batteries. Age code for. 228 

Philadelphia batteries. Preparing for dry shipment. 30 

Philadelphia batteries shipped dry. Putting into service. 187 

Philadelphia batteries. Special instructions for. 330 

Philadelphia batteries. Table of capacities of. 332 

Plante’s work on the storage battery. 31 

Plate burning rack. 145 

Plate press . 141 

Plate troubles . 94 

Plates. Burning on new. 280 

Plates determine when discharge should be stopped. 51 

Plates. Examination of, after opening battery.256 to 260 

Plates. Forming . 

Plates. Manufacture of . 11 

Plates that have been charged in wrong direction.. 109 

Plates. When the old may be used again... 268 









































308 


INDEX 


Page 

Plates. When to put in new. 260 

Porosity of active materials. Effect of, on capacity. 57 

Positive plate. Changes at, during charge . 55 

Positive plate. Changes at, during discharge . 52 

Positives. Buckled. 108 

Positives. Causes of frozen. 108 

Positives distorted by buckling. 263 

Positives. Rotten and disintegrated.108, 265 

Positives that have lost considerable active material. 109 

Positives. Washing . 279 

Positives. When new are required. 281 

Positives with hard, shiny active material..109, 263 

Positives with soft active material.109, 269 

Precautions to be taken by repairmen. 218 

Preparing batteries for dry shipment. 30 

Preparing U. S. L. batteries for dry shipment. 30 

Preparing Willard batteries for dry shipment. 30 

Pressing and washing negatives. 275 

Prest-O-Lite batteries. Age code for. 229 

Prest-O-Lite batteries. Peened post construction. 320 

Prest-O-Lite batteries shipped dry. Putting into service. 186 

Prest-O-Lite batteries. Special instructions for. 320 

Prest-O-Lite farm lighting batteries. 370 

Prest-O-Lite peening press. 325 

Put nothing but the battery in the battery box. 75 

Putting into service batteries shipped dry . 182 

Putting into service batteries shipped fully charged. 181 

Putting new batteries into service. 180 

R 

Rack for burning on plates. 145 

Rates for bench charge. 172 

Rebuilding the battery. 246 

Rectifier. Electrolytic . 160 

Rectifier. Mechanical . 164 

Rectifier. Mercury arc. 158 

Rectifier. Stahl . 465 

Rectifier. Tungar .. 159 

Removing battery from car. When necessary. 244 

Removing connectors and terminals. 248 

Removing defective jars. 286 

Rental tags . 203 

Repair tags. 202 

Replacing evaporation. Acid must never be used for. 81 















































INDEX 


399 


Page 

Replacing evaporation. Directions for. 81 

Replacing evaporation. Distilled water must be used for. 80 

Resistance of active materials. 65 

Resistance of cell. Internal. 64 

Resistance of electrolyte. 65 

Resistance of grids. 64 

S 

Sealing compound. Removing with hot putty knife and screwdriver.... 256 

Sealing compound. Softening with gasoline torch. 256 

Sealing compound. Softening with hot water . 256 

Sealing compound. Softening with lead burning flame. 256 

Sealing compound. Softening with steam . 250 

Sealing compounds . 294 

Sealing the rebuilt battery. 295 

Separator troubles. t . 110 

Separators. Manufacture of. 17 

Separators. Putting in new. 289 

Separators. What to do with. 269 

Sequence of operations in starting and lighting system on car. 67 

Shedding. Causes of. 100 

Shelving for workshop. 134 

Shipping batteries. Instructions for packing for. 204 

Shop equipment . 128 

Short circuits between plates. Eliminating. 271 

Single and double covers. Description of... .. <,, . 20 

Special instructions for Eveready batteries . 332 

Special instructions for Exide batteries. 308 

Special instructions for Philadelphia batteries. 330 

Special instructions for Prest-O-Lite batteries. 320 

Special instructions for U. S. L. batteries.. 317 

Special instructions for Vesta batteries. 340 

Special water jet for washing out jars. 131 

Specific gravity. Adjusting, when charging rebuilt batteries. 306 

Specific gravity as an indication of progress of charge. 49 

Specific gravity. Causes and effects of low ..V- . 236 

Specific gravity. Causes and effects of high . 239 

Specific gravity. Changes in, during charge . 54 

Specific gravity. Changes in, during discharge . 49 

Specific gravity. Effect of temperature on. 89 

Specific gravity. Freezing points of electrolyte at various. 92 

Specific gravity. General discussion of. 351 

Specific gravity. If it will not rise on charge. 240 

Specific gravity in tropical countries. 58 












































400 INDEX 


Page 

Specific gravity of electrolyte for Farm Lighting Batteries. 350 

Specific gravity of electrolyte for rebuilt batteries. 295 

Specific gravity of electrolyte for Prest-O-Lite farm lighting batteries.. 372 
Specific gravity should be measured every two weeks while battery is on 

car. 83 

Specific gravity. What to do if it does not rise above 1.200 on charge... 174 

Specific gravity. What to do if it does not rise above 1.260 on charge. .. 173 

Specific gravity. What do if it rises above 1.300 on charge. 176 

Specific gravity. Why 1.280-1.300 indicates full charge. 58 

Specific gravity readings. How to take. 85 

Specific gravity readings. Meanings of. 84 

Specific gravity readings reliable only when proportion of acid in elec¬ 
trolyte is correct. 97 

Stahl rectifier. 165 

Starting motor should be used as little as possible. 71 

Starting motor should not be used to propel car. 71 

Starvation of battery causes sulphation. 96 

Steamer for softening sealing compound. 139 

Steps in development of electric starting and lighting systems. 1 

Storing batteries dry . 194 

Storing batteries wet. 192 

Storing batteries which have been in service. 192 

Sulphate. Small amount of it is desirable. 98 

Sulphated battery. Charging. 173 

Sulphated plates. Effect of charging at too high a rate. 101 

Sulphated plates. What to do with, when rebuilding battery. 264 

Sulphation .48, 95 

Sulphuric acid. Manufacture of. 19 


T 


Table of age code for Exide batteries. 227 

Table of age code for Philadelphia batteries. 228 

Table of age code for Prest-O-Lite batteries. 229 

Table of age code for U. S. L. batteries. 227 

Table of age code for Vesta batteries. 228 

Table of age code for Willard batteries. 229 

Table of capacities of Eveready batteries.338, 339 

Table of capacities of Exide batteries. 316 

Table of capacities of Philadelphia batteries. 332 

Table of capacities of U. S. L. batteries.318, 319 

Table of capacities of Vesta batteries. 346 

Table of charging rates for Prest-O-Lite farm lighting batteries. 372 

Table of charging rates for U. S. L. batteries. 184 

Table of electrolyte levels for U. S. L. batteries. 184 












































INDEX 


401 


Page 

Table of freezing points of electrolyte of various specific gravities. 92 

Table of initial and repair charging rates for Exide batteries. 183 

Table of initial charging rates for Philadelphia batteries. 187 

Table of lamps requred for Trickle charge. 194 

Table of power consumed by household appliances. 356 

Table of proportions of acid and water for mixing electrolyte.200, 201 

Tagging batteries . 201 

Temperature. Causes and effects of high.91, 240 

Temperature corrections to be made when measuring specific gravity.... 89 

Temperature. Effect of, on capacity of battery. 61 

Temperature. Effect of, on specific gravity. 89 

Temperature. High, more harmful than low. 91 

Temperature. Operating .. 90 

Temperatures at which electrolyte of various specific gravities freezes... 92 

Terminal troubles. 114 

Terminals. Removing when rebuilding batteries. 248 

Testing jars for leaks. 285 

Time required for benoh charge. 172 

Tools and equipment. 135 

Trickle charge for batteries stored wet. 193 

Trouble charts .236 to 243 

Troubles. Plate . 94 

Troubles. Storage battery. 94 

Tungar rectifier . 159 

Turntable for batteries. 142 

U 

U. S. L. batteries. Age code for. 317 

U. S. L. batteries. Charging rates for. 184 

U. S. L. batteries. Correct height of electrolyte in. 184 

U. S. L. batteries. Dry shipment of, from factory. 30 

U. S. L. batteries shipped dry. Putting into service. 183 

U. S. L. batteries. Special instructions for. 317 

U. S. L. batteries. Table of capacities of.318, 319 

U. S. L. cover construction. 25 

U. S. L. filling tube construction. 25 

V 

Vent plugs should be left in place when charging. 176 

Vesta batteries. Age code for. 228 

Vesta batteries shipped dry. Putting into service. 185 

Vesta batteries. Special instructions for. 340 

Vesta batteries. Table of capacities of. 346 







































402 


INDEX 


Page 

Vesta battery. The “1919”. 342 

Vesta isolators ... • 340 

Voltage. Causes and effects of low. 236 

Voltage changes during charge . 53 

Voltage changes during discharge . 47 

Voltage drop when battery is taken off charge. 47 

Voltage of a fully charged cell. 47 

Voltage. Rapid rise in, at beginning of charge. 53 

Voltage rise when charge is stopped. 49 

Voltage. What it depends upon. 49 

Voltage readings on open circuit are worthless. 208 

W 

Washing and pressing negatives. 275 

Washing positives. 279 

Wet storage of batteries which have been in service.. 192 

What must be done after opening a battery. 257 

What takes place during charge. 53 

What takes place during discharge . 46 

What takes place in a starting and lighting system.. 67 

When a battery may be left on the car. 243 

When a battery must be opened. 245 

When a battery should be removed from the car. . .. 244 

When a bench charge is necessary. 171 

'When discharge of battery should be stopped. 48 

When it is unnecessary to open a battery. 245 

When the old plates may be used again. 268 

When to put in new plates. 260 

Where does the electricity in a battery come from. 38 

Willard batteries. Age code for.....* . . . . 229 

Willard batteries. Dry shipment of. 30 

Wiring for a five battery charging line... 158 

Wiring for charging bench. 149 to 155 

Wiring for discharge board .:. 166 

Working drawing for charging bench. 148 

Work bench. Special. 130 

Work shop. Layout for a small. 129 

Work shop. Light for. 134 

Work shop. Selection of. 127 

Workshop. Shelving for. 134 

Work to be done on a battery. Summary of. 243 









































Showing the AMBU Electrical Trouble 
Shooter Complete with Ignition Tester 



The ignition tester will make the following tests: 

Complete tests on any ignition, coil or magneto. Both coils and mag¬ 
netos may be tested without taking them apart, and the magnetos 
may be tested without rotating the armatures. Grounds, Short-Cir¬ 
cuits, and open circuits may be located with ease. Condensers may 
be tested without removing them from the coils. Not Only are faults 
in the windings and condensers located, but the spark which the coils 
or magnetos develop is quickly determined at the spark gap included 
in the tester. Description of Trouble Shooter on next page. 








Trouble Shooter 

The < TROUBLE SHOOTER consists of three main parts, 

forminga~complete and invaluable system for quickly diagnosing and 
locating any trouble in the Electric Starting and Lighting Systems of 
all American made Automobiles. 

These parts are: 

(1) The Ambu Instrument. This is a combined ammeter and volt¬ 
meter which has a special patented set of movable indicators by which 
trouble is quickly diagnosed. This instrument may also be used as 
an ordinary ammeter or voltmeter. The ammeter has three scale read¬ 



ings 1-0-5; 5-0-25; 100-0-500. The voltmeter readings 0.3-0-3; 3-0-30; 
15-0-150. It is of a very rugged construction designed for use in the 
repair shop. 

(2) Instruction Books, or “Charts.” There are fourteen Instruction 
Books, or “Charts” for the various makes of starting and lighting sys¬ 
tems which form a part of the AMBU Trouble Shooter. The different 
models produced by each maker are fully covered in these charts, there 
being instructions for more than 100 models of generators and motors. 

Each of these “Charts” gives thorough, yet simple instructions, which 
are easily understood. 

By using the “Charts” with the AMBU instrument, electrical troubles 
are easily located and eliminated. The instrument classifies the trouble 
and indicates the exact pages in the charts where the trouble is de¬ 
scribed, and the simplest method given for its location and removal. 

The fourteen “Charts” are of a convenient size, 5 % inches by 7% 
inches, and contain more than 3,000 pages of accurate, systematized 
instructions for quickly finding and eliminating electrical troubles. They 
also contain over 200 circuit diagrams, which show the exact internal 
connections of the various makes and models of generators, motors, 
regulators, cutouts, and so on. Other useful information found in the 








<^MB> Trouble Shooter 

"Charts” consist of tables giving the lamp equipment of the various 
makes and models of cars; instructions for increasing or decreasing the 
charging rate of each of the various models of generators; the correct 
charging rate and lamp current for all cars; instructions for adjusting 
cutouts and regulators; and complete descriptions of the design, con¬ 
struction, maintenance, and special features of the various makes and 
models of generators, motors, cutouts, etc. 

(3) Over 700 Wiring Diagrams, showing the complete external con¬ 
nections of the Starting, Lighting and Ignition circuits on cars made 
in the United States since 1911. All parts are placed in the same 
relative positions they occupy on the cars, and are clearly labeled and 
explained. 

In addition to these three main parts, there is also a 300 page book 
telling all about automobile batteries, their theory, maintenance and 
manufacture, and giving complete and practical instructions for making 
any repairs, charging, etc. This book is profusely illustrated by es¬ 
pecially made drawings and photographs. 

A set of Cadmium Test Leads is also included; also a twelve chapter 
clearly written and easily understood course of ignition, Starting and 
Lighting; a complete set of suggestions for advertising your shop in 
local newspapers, with the loan of cuts and illustrations; and expert 
consultation on any electrical subject. 

Ambu is as Essential to You as an Engine is to an Automobile. The 
claim made by Ambu is that it is the repairman’s best friend. There is 
indisputable evidence to prove that this claim is correct. Men who 
have installed the AMBU TROUBLE SHOOTER Service in their shops 
say they could not handle half the jobs they do now if they did not 
have it. Not only do they get the trade which comes from those who 
need efficient electrical repair service, but they are also able to make 
many hundreds of dollars through the sale of accessories to the car 
owners with whom they are brought into contact by AMBU. 

If you want to be able to handle any electrical repair job, if you want 
to make more money and greater profit, get the AMBU plan, become an 
AMBU man. 

Ambu Electrical Trouble Shooter.Price on Request 

Complete with Ignition TESTER 

American Bureau of Engineering, Inc. 

Trouble Shooter Department 
1603 South Michigan Ave. 


Chicago, Ill., U. S. A. 






<§0BD>Battery Plate Press 

The most common fault of negative battery plates is the bulging out 
of the active material caused by the formation of lead sulphate as the 

battery discharges. This active material 
must be pressed back flush with the grids if 
the battery is to give good service again. 
Moreover, both positive and negative plates 
become bent out of shape, and buckled, and 
must be straightened. 

Many battery men use an ordinary iron 
bench vise, for this purpose, but this is a 
poor practice. The iron vise soon becomes 
corroded and rusted from the acid squeezed 
out of the plates. It also becomes stiff and 
hard to operate. Moreover, there is always 
danger that particles of iron will get on the 
plates from the vise, and iron is the worst 
enemy of battery plates, because it causes 
the battery to lose its charge quickly and it 
is almost impossible to remove this iron. 
The AMBU BATTERY PLATE PRESS is 
designed to do away with all the disadvantages of the iron vise. Three 
sets of plates may be pressed at once between the large wooden jaws. 
No iron or any other metal can touch the plates. The upper jaw is 
movable and is operated by a large hand-wheel. No acid can drip on 
the operating screw. 

A trough may be placed under the press so as to catch the acid 
squeezed from the plates. The trough may be drained into a stone 
jar and the acid saved, thus eliminating the rotted, acid soaked floor 
which results from the use of the iron bench vise, 
and which ruins shoes and clothes. 


Fittings with instructions are furnished with 
the Press for mounting it on the wall of the shop. 

The press may also be mounted on a stand, which 
is not, however, furnished with the Press. This 
stand is easily made, however. 

The lower jar is removable, and may be lifted 
out and replaced if it becomes acid soaked. All parts are coated with 
acid-proof paint. 

A complete set of transite boards of the proper thickness for placing 
between the plates are included in the cost price. 

Price, with transite boards, and fittings for mounting on wall.. .$32.50 
Transite Boards only—set complete. 5.90 

F. 0. B. Chicago. Prices subject to change without notice. 

Order through your jobber or direct. 

American Bureau of Engineering, Inc. 

Appliance Division 



1603 South Michigan Ave. 


Chicago, Ill., U. S. A. 

























30Bj> Armature Tester 


This is an accurate, positive device for 
quickly detecting and accurately locating open 
circuits, short-circuits, grounds, and reversed 
commutator connectors on the armatures of 
motors or generators which are equipped with 
commutators. 

WILL TEST ANY SIZED ARMATURE 

Any sized armature, no matter how small 
or large, no matter what its resistance, may, be 
tested with equal facility. No connections are 
made to the armature, and the armature need 
not be removed from the machine if it is pos¬ 
sible to get at the commutator. 

MAY BE USED ON ANY A. C. OR D. C. CIRCUIT 

The AMBU ARMATURE TESTER may be used on any direct or alternating 
current circuit, and on any voltage from 6 to 2 2 0. No change or adjustment is 
necessary in changing from a direct to an alternating, or from alternating to direct, 
current circuit. For the various voltages, it is only necessary to use lamps of the 
proper voltage or no lamps at all, as the case may be. 

CONSTRUCTION IS VERY SIMPLE 

Current from the supply circuit is led through a current interrupter, which is 
bridged by a condenser. The current is sent into each consecutive pair of seg¬ 
ments through the Contact Making Pins shown in the illustration. The two Trans¬ 
former Arms shown in the illustration touch the commutator also, and lead to 
the telephone receiver circuit through a specially designed transformer coil. 

INDICATIONS ARE POSITIVE 

The variation in the sound heard in the receiver tells what the nature of the 

trouble is, and just where it is. In making a test, the contact making pins are 

brought down on each pair of consecutive segments, the Transformer arms resting 
on the commutator several segments on either side of the contact making pins. 

This testing is all done with one hand. An open circuit is indicated by a sudden 

and marked louder sound, a short-circuit by a sudden and marked dimmer sound, 
reversed commutator connections by louder sounds on every second pair of segments 
as long as they last. Grounds are located by testing between each segment and 
the armature core or shaft. The segment which is nearest the grounded point of 
the winding is indicated by a sudden dimming of the sound in the receiver. 

Price, each . $30.00 

F. 0. B. Chicago. Prices subject to change without notice. 

Order through your jobber or direct. 


AMBU ARMATURE teste 



American Bureau of Engineering, Inc. 

Appliance Division 


1603 South Michigan Ave. 


Chicago, Ill., U. S. A. 















<§SBjj> 

Plate Burning Racks 

When you burn-in new plates, or attach a whole group of plates to a 
plate strap, you need a burning rack to hold the plates in position while 
the lead is melted in. 

"WHAT THEY ARE. The Ambu Plate Burning Racks have guiding 
slots cut in the base as well as in the iron bar, or “comb.” In this way 
the plates are held at exactly the right distance apart, both at the top , 

and bottom. Bases are made of hardwood. The small rack will take 
care of practically all Vs inch plates made by Willard, Gould, Philadel¬ 
phia, and U. S. L. It will also accommodate all thin plates such as the 



Large Rack Small Rack 


Exide 3XC, Willard, and Gould. The large rack will take care of many 
other types, being designed to accommodate fully 95 per cent of all the 
types of plates which are made at present. 

Special iron fittings are furnished which are placed around the plate 
lugs on the comb so as to hold the plates firmly in position, and to pre¬ 
vent the hot lead from running off. 

WHAT IT DOES. Enables you to burn in plates in half the time 
required when using the ordinary rack. Plates are held at exactly the 
correct distance apart. The hot lead cannot run off. No iron touches 
the bottoms of the wet plates. 

Shipping weight of small rack, 10 lbs. Shipping weight of large rack, 


15 lbs. 

Price of small rack.$ 7.50 

Price of large rack. 12.50 


Prices subject to change without notice. 

Order through your jobber or direct. 

American Bureau of Engineering, Inc. 

Appliance Division 


1603 South Michigan Ave. 


Chicago, Ill., U. S. A. 











<30b£> Cadmium Leads 

How often you have said, “If I only had some way of 
knowing which set of plates is in a bad condition, without first 

opening up the whole battery!” 
That is precisely what you can 
do with the AMBU CADMIUM 
LEADS. These Cadmium Leads 
consist of two heavily insulated 
flexible wires, each five feet long, 
at one end of which are brass prods 
with wooden handles, and at the 
other end of which are forked ter¬ 
minals for attaching to the volt¬ 
meter. Fastened at right angles to one of the brass prods is a 
rod of chemically pure cadmium. 

With these AMBU CADMIUM LEADS you can make 
absolutely reliable tests in a few moments, and you must have 
the means to make such tests if you want to know whether 
each set of plates is functioning properly, and able to give 
good service while under load. The Cadmium Test will show 
up a poor set of plates, be they positive or negative plates, 
instantly. No battery should be taken off the charging bench, 
or sent out of your shop until a Cadmium Test shows that 
both positive and negative plates are fully charged and ready 
to give good service. 

Give this matter your immediate consideration. Order now. 
Can be used with any voltmeter that has readings as fine as 
five hundredths. 

CADMIUM LEADS .$3.25 

Prices subject to change without notice. 

Order through your Jobber or direct. 

American Bureau of Engineering, Inc. 

Appliance Division 



1603 South Michigan Ave. 


Chicago, Ill., U. S. A. 










Battery Steamer Type A 

You can easily open any battery witliout the use of a gas flame or 
blow torch if you have an AMBU BATTERY STEAMER. And while 
the Steamer is working away, softening 
the sealing compound, the repairman 
does some other work. From five to 
thirty minutes and the sealing com¬ 
pound is so soft that it can easily be 
removed with the point of a screw driver, 
and this will take only five minutes, 
because of the thorough job done by the 
steamer. 

Steamer Cuts Dirt and Grease. 

Another big advantage of the steamer 
is that the steam cuts all the dirt and 
grease on the battery box so that it can 
be wiped off with a cloth, making the 
box look like new. 

Needs No Attention After Stove is 
Lighted. 

In the average battery shop the water 
supply tank needs to be filled but once a 
day. After that the stove is lighted and 
the entire steaming apparatus requires absolutely no attention. The 
level of the water in the boiler is automatically maintained at one inch. 
An automatic, float-controlled valve keeps the water at this level and 
admits just enough water to replace that which boils away. This is a 
tremendous advantage, as steam is quickly obtained, and a weaker flame 
may be used to boil the water. 

When used with the condenser—see illustration—it will give five and 
one-half gallons distilled water in seven hours. 


Price, complete.$62.00 

Price without condenser. 52.00 

Price condenser only. 12.50 

Price steaming box only. 28.00 


F. O. B. Chicago. Prices subject to change without notice. 

Order through your jobber or direct. 

American Bureau of Engineering, Inc. 

Appliance Division 



1603 South Michigan Ave. 


Chicago, Ill., U. S. A. 














< aMBu > 

Battery Steamer Type B 

In the Type B 
AMBT T Steamer, the 
wooden steaming box 
is eliminated. The 
steam is carried direct 
to the cells of the bat¬ 
tery bv means of hose. 

•V « 

An adjustable valve 
permits the opening of 
the required number 
of outlets for the bat¬ 
tery cells. 

The holes of the out¬ 
lets are graduated so 
that the same amount 
of steam is forced 
through each. An 
equal amount of steam 
is thus sent to each cell. 

The condenser may also be obtained with this type. A\ hen 
not used for steaming it is only necessary to attach the 


hose from the end outlet to the still. 

Price, Type B, complete with condenser.$35.00 

Price, Type B without condenser. 25.00 

Price, condenser only. 12.50 


P. O. B. Chicago. Prices subject to change without notice. 

Order through your jobber or direct. 

American Bureau of Engineering, Inc. 

Appliance Division 



160Q South Michigan Ave. 


Chicago, Ill., U. S. A. 


















Cadmium Voltmeter 

In order to make accurate Cadmium Tests, you 
must have a fine reading voltmeter. Most ordinary 

voltmeters are not suit¬ 
able for this purpose, 
and to get a voltmeter 
of sufficient accuracy, 
you usually pay from 

$50.00 to $100.00. 

The AMBU CAD¬ 
MIUM VOLTMETER 

is made especially for 
Cadmium Tests, and 
is therefore absolutely 
certain to give you ac¬ 
curate results. 

A complete instruction book for making Cadmium 
Tests, goes with each instrument. 

Voltmeter only ----- $22.50 
Voltmeter with Cadmium Leads - - 25.00 

Prices subject to change without notice. 

Order through your jobber or direct. 

American Bureau of Engineering, Inc. 

Appliance Division 



1603 South Michigan Ave. 


Chicago, Ill., U. S. A. 















































Battery Carrier 



“Carry a Battery Like a Suitcase” 

You would not think of carrying a heavy suitcase by 
holding it in front of you with both hands. Yet that is the 
way a battery is generally carried, not because it is heavy, 
but because of the way the handles are attached to the bat¬ 
tery box. 

WHAT IT IS. The Ambu Battery Carrier consists of a 
stout hardwood handle having at each end a swinging steel 
link to which is attached a strong steel hook for engaging 
the handles on the battery box. 

WHAT IT DOES. The construction is such that the ter¬ 
rific strain on the handles of the battery is lessened to a 
minimum. A strap with hooks should never be used because 
there is a side pull that soon causes the handles on the bat¬ 
tery to give way. The AMBU Battery Carrier enables you 
to carry a battery like a suitcase, with the least strain on 
your arms. One man can carry two batteries at the same 
time because he can hold them down at his side. Also use¬ 
ful in lifting a battery out of the car, and putting the bat¬ 
tery back in the car. Shipping weight, 1 lb. each, or 2 lbs. 


per pair. 

Price, each.$1.50 

Price, per pair. 2.50 


Prices subject to change without notice. 

Your jobber can supply you, or order direct. 

American Bureau of Engineering, Inc. 

Appliance Division 


1603 South Michigan Ave. 


Chicago, Ill., U. S. A. 










































Burning Lead Mold 

Here’s a convenient, inexpensive lead mold which will be 
quite welcome to you in these days of conservation. Every 
battery shop has an accumulation of scrap lead from post 
drillings, old connecting straps, and old plates. 



Such scrap makes good burning lead, and should be saved 
until enough has accumulated to be melted and poured off 
into molds. 

The AMBU BURNING LEAD MOLD is made of heavy 
sheet iron, die-stamped into six slots into which the lead is 
poured. The mold gives very handy sized bars for lead 
burning. The slotted iron is mounted on a strong wooden 
base which has a handle at one end, making it possible to 
handle the mold when full of hot lead. A sheet of asbestos 
protects the wooden base from the heat of the melted lead. 

The sheet-iron construction absorbs very little heat, mak- 
ing it easy to pour the lead. This is a decided advantage 
-over a cast-iron mould, which absorbs so much heat that the 
jlead cools quickly and is hard to pour. 


Price, each.$1.50 

Price, each pair.1 2.50 


* ■ r t 

F. 0. B. Chicago. Prices subject to change without notice. 
Your Jobber cab supply you now. 

, ' f r * rr — 

Jaoi: i TC~.r r o 

American Bureau of Engineering, Inc. 

Appliance Division 

1603 South Michigan Ave. Chicago, Ill., U. S. A. 


















•<$&&$> Battery Turn Table 

W hen you once lift a battery up on the work bench, you 
do not want to move it around any more than necessary. 
It is too heav}" for easy handling. Yet in lead burning, seal¬ 
ing, repairing the handles, repairing the case, or painting 



the case, you often must be able to get at all sides of the 
battery. 

4 / 

To eliminate the back-breaking lifting and turning around 
of the battery, the AMBU BATTERY TURNTABLE was de¬ 
signed. Every battery man should have at least one of these 
handy turntables. A battery on this turntable can be turned 
around with one finger. 

The turntable is not fastened to the work bench, and may 

7 v 

be taken to the battery, instead of carrying the heavy bat- 

tery to it. 

*/ 

It is made of well-seasoned hardwood and will last for 
years. Price, each.$2.50 

F. 0. B. Chicago. Prices subject to change without notice. 
Your Jobber can supply you now. 

American Bureau of Engineering, Inc. 

Appliance Division 


1603 South Michigan Ave. 


Chicago, Ill., U. S. A. 

































Wiring Diagrams 



The original authoritative copyrighted wiring diagrams 
were issued as part of the Famous AMBU Trouble Shooter. 

They are now issued in convenient looseleaf form in three 
volumes for all cars from 1911 to the present. Diagrams 
are printed on heavy kraft paper, size of each diagram, 6"x 
9". Easy to read and simple to trace. 

May be purchased by set, volume or by individual dia¬ 
gram. Diagrams of new cars as they may appear can easily 
be inserted. 

Vol. 1—‘ ‘1912-13-14”—contains diagrams of wiring sys¬ 
tems of older cars. Hardest to obtain when needed most. 

Vol. 2—“1915-16”—contains diagrams of the period when 
greatest changes and variations were made in installation 
and wiring. 

Vol. 3—“1917-18-19”—all the modern models with their 
complex systems. Diagrams needed most in every garage. 


Price, per volume.$ 3.50 

Price, per set. 10.00 

Price, individual diagrams. 25 


Order through your jobber or direct. 

American Bureau of Engineering, Inc. 

Publishing Division 


1603 South Michr'gan Ave. 


Chicago, Ill., U. S. A. 




































































THE FORD STANDARD 
ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT 

Complete Instruction on the 
New Ford Starting and Lighting System. 

This book of 150 pages 
gives in detail everything 
about the new Ford 
Electrical equipment, in¬ 
cluding starting a n d 
lighting, battery and ig¬ 
nition. It is highly illus¬ 
trated with 47 photos, 
written for the every¬ 
day man in easily under- 
stood English. De¬ 
scribes the construction 
and installation of the 
F-A system—now stan- 
d a r d equipment o n 
Fords. Also complete in¬ 
struction on how to locate and correct starting and lighting 
troubles. Ford ignition with tests fully given. No man 
attempting to handle electrical repairs on Ford cars should 
be without this book. Bound in leatherette. 

Price .$2.50 



Order through your jobber or direct. 


American Bureau of Engineering, Inc. 

Publishing Division 


1603 South Michigan Ave. 


Chicago, III., U. S. A. 
















AMBU Engineering Institute 

America’s Only School Devoted Exclusively to Automotive Electricity 



In order to provide a 
place where garage owners, 
foremen and general repair¬ 
men might secure knowl¬ 
edge and general practical 
work in the electrical end of 
the automotive industry, 
the American Bureau of En¬ 
gineering f o u n d e d t h e 
AMBU Engineering In¬ 
stitute. 

An eight weeks' course of 
intensive instruction and 
practical shop work enables 
a student to become an ex¬ 
pert in this highly special¬ 
ized field, fitting him to 
superintend the work of 
other mechanics or to oper¬ 
ate a shop of iiis own as an 
expert in Automotive Elec¬ 
tricity. 

Thorough instruction in 
all phases of electricity as 
applied to Starting a n d 
Lighting, Ignition and Bat¬ 
teries is given. Forty-four 
hours each week of the term 
are devoted to class and 
shoproom work under in¬ 
structors who are experts in their various lines—practical and ex¬ 
perienced men who are also qualified to teach. The faculty is made 
up of men which form a happy combination of technical knowledge, 
practical experience and teaching ability. 

The location of the AMBLT Engineering Institute, 2632 Prairie Ave., 
Chicago, is ideal because of its close proximity to Chicago's famous 
“Automobile Row” stretched along South Michigan Boulevard. The 
school occupies a commodious four story building with large, light and 
airy class rooms which are well equipped with all modern appliances 
necessary for instruction. 

Classes are limited to twenty members so that each man may be 
given personal instruction and supervision. New classes begin every 
other Monday. They are filling far in advance. It will, therefore, be 
advisable to enroll early. 

For full information, terms and class reservations address: 

American Bureau of Engineering, Inc. 


"v 


;• ••• •/ 


Institute Building, 2632 S. Prairie Ave. 


Administrative Offices 
1603 South Michigan Ave. 


Chicago, Ill., U. S. A. 


















382 VI 























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